Aryans were people who were said to speak an archaic Indo-European language and who were thought to have settled in prehistoric times in ancient Iran and the northern Indian subcontinent.
- Aryan is a designation originally meaning “civilized”, “noble”, or “free” without reference to any ethnicity.
- It was first applied as a self-identifying term by a migratory group of people from Central Asia later known as Indo-Iranians (who settled on the Iranian Plateau) and, later, applied to Indo-Aryans (who travelled south to settle northern India).
- They spoke Indo Iranian, Indo European or Sanskrit. It is said that Aryans lived in East of Alps (Eurasia), Central Asia, Arctic region, Germany, and Southern Russia.
- There are multiple theories that talk about the original location of Aryans and where they come from and the time period of their migration into India.
- The migration happened over a period of time starting around 2000BCE and peaked after the decline of IVC. Later they migrated westwards, southwards and eastwards.
Map showing how Aryans migrated to India
- Some say they came from the area around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia (Max Muller), while others think they originated from the Russian Steppes.
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak was of the opinion that the Aryans came from the Arctic region.
The Vedic Age was between 1500 BC and 600 BC. In this time period the Vedas were composed in the northern Indian subcontinent.
The Vedas, are the oldest texts of Hinduism. They are derived from the ancient Indo-Aryan culture of the Indian Subcontinent and began as an oral tradition that was passed down through generations before finally being written in vedic Sanskrit.
The Four Vedas, on which the periods were named after are:
(i) The Rigveda: The oldest Veda is the Rigveda. It has 1028 hymns called ‘Suktas’ and is a collection of 10 books called ‘Mandalas.’
(ii) Samaveda: Known as the Veda of melodies and chants, Samaveda dates back to 1200-800 BCE. This Veda is related to public worship.
(iii) Yajur Veda: Yajurveda dates back to 1100-800 BCE; corresponding with Samaveda. It compiles ritual-offering mantras/chants. These chants were offered by the priest alongside a person who used to perform a ritual.
(iv) Atharva Veda: This Veda contains hymns many of which were charms and magic spells that are meant to be pronounced by the person who seeks some benefit, or more often by a sorcerer who would say it on his or her behalf.
Try yourself:After which Veda, the Early Vedic Period was named after?
- Yajur veda
- Sama veda
- Atharva veda
- Rig veda
- The Vedic period or Vedic age is the next major civilization that occurred in ancient India after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization by 1400 BC.
The Vedic period can further be divided into 2 parts: - Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)
- The Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)
Since the Rigveda is considered the oldest of all the vedas, the Early vedic period i,e. 1800–1500 BCE is also called the Rigvedic period.
- The political units during the Rig Vedic or the early Vedic period comprised of Grama (village), Vis (clan), and Jana (people).
- Aryans were organized into tribes rather than kingdoms. The chief of a tribe was called a Rajan.
- The autonomy of the Rajan was restricted by the tribal councils called Sabha and Samiti.
- The two bodies were, in part, responsible for the governance of the tribe. The Rajan could not accede to the throne without their approval.
- Monarchy was the normal form of Government.
- Kingship was hereditary. But there was a sort of hierarchy in some states, several members of the royal family exercising the power in common.
- There were references to a democratic form of government and their chiefs were elected by the assembled people.
- The kingdom was small in extent. The king enjoyed a position of pre-eminence in the tribe. Kingship was hereditary.
- He was appointed by the priest as king in the ‘Abhisheka’ Ceremony. He wore gorgeous robes and lived in a splendid palace, gaily decorated than a common building.
- The king had the duty to protect the life and property of his people.
- The sacred duty of the king was the protection of the tribes and the territory and the maintenance of priests for the performance of sacrifices.
- Maintenance of law and order was his principal duty. He maintained justice with the help of Purohit's. He collected tributes known as “Bali” in kind from his subjects.
Try yourself:What form of government existed during the early Vedic period?
- Aristocracy
- Dyarchy
- Monarchy
- Theocracy
- In the work of administration, the king was assisted by a number of functionaries like the purohita (priest), the Senani (general) the Gramani (village headman).
- Purohit was the most important officer of the state.
Purohit performing rituals
- The army was mainly consisting of Patti (infantry) and Rathi's (chariots). The weapons used by the soldiers were bows, arrows, swords, axes and spears.
- These weapons were made up of irons. The soldiers were organized into units known as Sardha, Vrata and gala.
Ancient Indian warfare
- The Rig Veda mentions the names of two popular assemblies known as Sabha and Samiti.
- Though the king enjoyed substantial power yet he was not an autocrat. In the work of administration, he consulted these two bodies and act according to their decision. Sabha was a select body of elders.
- The head of the sabha was known as ‘Sabhapati’.
Try yourself:Who was the most important officer of the state?
- Purohita
- Rajan
- Senani
- Gramani
- The concept of Varna, along with the rules of marriage, was made quite stiff. Social stratification took place, with the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas being considered higher than the Shudras and the Vaisyas.
- Cows and bulls were accorded religious significance. Aryans followed a mixed economy i.e. pastoral and agricultural in which cattle played a predominant part.
- The standard unit of exchange was Cow. The world's oldest currency coins were issued in ancient India during the Vedic period and were called Nishka and Mana. Nishka coins were small gold units of definite weight.
Coins of Vedic Period
- Apart from agriculture and animal husbandry Aryans had also other occupations. Weaving was the most important occupation.
- We learned about the weavers of wool and cotton together with the workers in the subsidiary industries of dying and embroidery.
- The carpenters built houses, chariots, wagons and supplied household utensils and furniture.
- There were trade and maritime activity. Sometimes traders made the journey to distant lands for larger profits in trade.
- There was probably commercial intercourse with Babylon and other countries in Western Asia. The principal media of trade was barter.
- The cow was used as a unit of value. Gradually pieces of gold called “nishka” were used as means of exchange.
- Trade and commerce were regulated and managed by a group of people called “Pani”.
Try yourself:Which animal was considered a symbol of wealth and prosperity?
- Horse
- Goat
- Buffalo
- Cow
- The family was regarded as the social and political unit. It was the nucleus of the social life of the early Aryans.
- The father was the head of the family and he was known as “grihapati”. The Aryans had joint families. The father had great authority over the children.
- In the early Vedic age women enjoyed an honoured place in society.
- The wife was the mistress of the household and authority over the slaves. In all religious ceremonies, she participated with her husband.
- The Prada system was not prevalent in society. Sati system was also not prevalent during this period
- The Rig-Veda mentions the names of some learned ladies like Viswavara, Apala and Ghosa who composed mantras and attained the rank of Rishis. The girls were married after attaining puberty.
- The practice of ‘Swayamvara’ was also prevalent in society. Monogamy was the general practice. Remarriage of widows was permitted.
- In the Rig-Vedic age great importance was given to education.
- There were Gurukuls which imparted education to the disciples after their sacred-thread ceremony.
- Entire instruction was given orally. The Vedic education aimed at proper development of mind and body.
- The disciples were taught about ethics, the art of warfare, the art of metal and the concept of Brahma and philosophy, and basic sciences like agriculture, animal husbandry, and handicrafts.
Gurukul
- In the early Vedic age there was no caste system. Members of the same family took to different arts, crafts, and trades.
- People could change their occupation according to their needs or talents. There was hardly any restriction in intermarriage, change of occupation.
- There was no restriction on taking food cooked by the Sudras.
- Reference in Rig-Veda shows that agriculture was the principal occupation of the people.
- They ploughed the field by means of a pair of oxen. Rig-Veda even mentions that 24 oxen were attached to a ploughshare at the same time to plough the land.
- The ploughed land was known as Urvara or Kshetra. Water was supplied into the fields by means of an irrigation canal.
- The use of manure was known to them.
Farming - Barley and wheat were mainly cultivated. Cotton and oilseeds were also grown. Rice was perhaps not extensively cultivated. Agriculture was their main source of income.
- Besides agriculture, cattle breeding was another means of living. There are prayers in the Vedas for Gosu (cattle).
- Cows were held in great respect. Cows were symbols of the wealth and prosperity of the Aryans. Sometimes cows were the medium of exchange.
- The Aryans had also domesticated animals like horse, ox, dog, goat, sheep, buffalo and donkey.
Cattle Rearing
- The chief means of transport by land were rath (Chariots) and wagons drawn by horses and oxen.
- Riding on horseback was also in vogue.
- Rishis, composers of the hymns of the Rig Veda, were considered to be divine. The main deities were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial fire), and Soma.
Gods mentioned in Rig Veda - People also worshipped Mitra-Varuna, Surya (Sun), Vayu (wind), Usha (dawn), Prithvi (Earth) and Aditi (the mother of gods). Yoga and Vedanta became the basic elements of religion.
- In the later Vedic period, the tribal organisations changed their identity and gradually shifted to the territorial identity, and the area of settlement was now regarded as janapadas or states.
- In the transition from tribal to monarchy, they lost the essential democratic pattern of the tribe but retained the idea of government through an assembly representing the tribes.
Mahajanapadas
- These states consisted of either a single tribe such as Shakyas, Kolias, Malas etc.
- The people in the lower Ganges Valley and Delta, which were outside the Aryan pale, were not incorporated.
- There was, therefore, a strong consciousness of the pure land of the Aryans called Aryavarta.
- Each janapada tried to dominate and subjugate other janapadas to become Mahajanapadas.
- The kings in these states had supreme authority.
- The Mahajanpadas of Vriji, Malla, Kuru, Panchal and Kamboj were republican states and so were other smaller states like Lichhavi, Shakya, Koliya, Bhagga, and Moriya.
- These republican states had a Gana-parishad or an Assembly of senior and responsible citizens.
- This Gana-Parishad had the supreme authority in the state. All the administrative decisions were taken by this Parishad.
Again, the republics were basically of two types:
- The republics comprising a single tribe like those of the Sakyas, the Kolias and the Mallas, and
- The republics comprising a number of tribes or the republics of confederacy like the Vrijjis.
Try yourself:Match the following Mahajanapadas with their capitals
- A - 2, B - 1, C - 5, D - 4, E - 3
- A - 5, B- 3, C- 4, D - 1, E- 2
- In republics, every tribal oligarch claimed share in revenues from peasants. In the monarchies, the king claimed to be the sole recipient of such revenues.
- In the tribal oligarchy or republic, each raja (tribal oligarch) was free to maintain his own little army under his Senapati. In a monarchy, the king maintained his regular standing army. He did not permit any other armed forces within his boundaries.
- Republics functioned under the leadership of the oligarchic assemblies, while a monarchy functioned under the individual leadership of the king.
- The Brahmanas had a considerable influence on the monarchial administration, while they were relegated to the background in the republics.
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