MISCELLANEOUS: THE VEDIC CULTURE

Important Rituals

Rajasuya: The king’s influence was strengthened by rituals. He performed this sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power on him.
Asvamedha: A king performed the Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over an area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted.

Asvamedha ritual

Vajapeya: A king performed the Vajapeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen.

Chief Priests
The four chief priests who were engaged in performing the Shrauta sacrifiices were called Hotri, the invoker, Adhvaryu, the executor of the sacrifice, Udgatri, the singer, and Brahman, the high priest.

• Hotri: They recited Rig Samhita.
  
• Udgatri: They chanted the songs of Sama Samhita at the Soma sacrifice.
  
• Adhvaryu: Formulae of Yajur Samhita were to be uttered by the Adhvaryu priests who performed the manual work involved in a sacrifice.

Types of Marriage
(i) Brahma: Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same class.
(ii) Daiva: In this type of marriage, the father gives a daughter to a sacrificial priest as part of his fee.
(iii) Arsa: In this type of marriage, a token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given in place of the dowry.
(iv) Prajapatya: The father gives the girl without dowry and without demanding the bride-price.
(v) Gandharva: Marriage by the consent of the two parties, which might be solemnized merely by plighting troth.
(vi) Asrua: Asura marriage, in which the bride was bought from her father, was looked upon with disfavour by all the sacred texts, though the Arishashastra allows it without criticism.
(vii) Rakshasa: Rakshasamarriage, or marriage by capture, was practised especially by warriors.
(viii) Paishacha: It was the seduction of girl while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk  Of these eight forms the first four were generally approved and were permissible to brahmans. The other forms were looked on with varying degrees of disfavours by the pious. Gandharva marriage, which often might amount to no more than a liaison, was surprisingly respected. A special form of the gandharva marriage was the Swaymvar or “self-choice”.

Philosophical Systems
A large number of school of thought was prevalent in ancient times, but we know nine of them as the most important and influential. 

They are the Charvaka, Jaina, Buddha, Vaisheshika, Nyaya, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimansa and Vedanta. They fall into two groups, Astika and Nastika, the former believing in the authority of the Vedas and the latter discarding it. The first three systems are Nastika and all others are Astika. Jaina and Buddha schools of philosophy will be dealt with separately.

Charvaka System: The Charvaka system, also called Lokayata Darshna (the philosophy of the masses) propounds gross materialism.
 Among the orthodox systems of philosophy (Astika) there is some similarity and affinity between Nyaya and Vaisheshika, between Sankhya and Yoga, and between Mimansa and Vedanta. In the first two systems there is an affinity of philosophical doctrines, in the last two affinity is limited to the foundations and procedures, both systems having Vedic texts (one earliers and the other later) as their source, and the method of interpretation of the texts as the process of thinking. The Mimansakas recognize the Vedas as the final authority in determining the duties of man, and the Vedantists in gaining true knowledge about man and the universe. One is concerned with Karma-Kanda and the other with the Jnana-kanda of the Vedas, that is, the Samhitas and the Brahmanas, and the Upanishads respectively. This “Six systems of Hindu Philosophy” is also know as Shad-darshana.
(i) Vaisheshika (Particular Characteristics) : Propounded by Uluka Kanada. It is a realistic, analytic, and objective philosophy of the world.
(ii) Nyaya (Analysis): Propounded by Akshapad Gautama. It accepts all the categories recognized by the Vaisheshika system and adds one Abhava (negation).
(iii) Sankhya (Enumeration): Its legendary founder was Kapila. It is perhaps the oldest of the six systems, being mentioned in the Bhagavad Gita and occurring in a primitive form in the Upanishada. It is dualistic in its ontology. It believes in two ultimate realities Prakriti and Purusha.
(iv) Yoga (Application): Propounded by Patanjali. It is more or less applied Sankhya. It was based on the control of the body physically and implied that a perfect control over the body and the senses led to knowledge of the ultimate reality.
(v) Mimmnsa or Purva Mimamsa (Inquiry): Propounded by Jaimini. It is a philosophy of interpretation, application and use of texts of the Samhita and Brahamana portions of the Vedas.
(vi) Vedanta (End of the Vedas): It is also called Uttara Mimansa. The basic text of the system is the Brahma Sutras of Badarayana. Vedanta was decisive in refuting the theories of non-brahmanical schools.

PREVIOUS 25 YEARS OF UPSC ESSAY QUESTIONS

What is being judged in the essay part of the UPSC paper is not just the candidate’s knowledge but the way he expresses himself. A good knowledge base is essential but not the sufficient condition for writing a good essay in the UPSC Mains. What is required, in addition, is an ability to critically analyse things, a rational and wide thinking and, of course, a good command over the language. The language should be simple but beautiful and expressive.Language is a medium to express one’s thoughts and unless both language and thoughts are of a good quality and work in tandem, a good essay cannot be created.

What are the topics on which essays were asked in the previous UPSC examinations?

In the year 1993, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. My vision of India in 2001 AD.
2. The emerging global order—political and economic.
3. “He who reigns within himself and rules his passions, desires and fears is more than a king.”
4. Compassion is the basis of all morality.
5. Men have failed, let women take over.
6. Economic growth without distributive justice is bound to breed violence.
7. Ecological considerations need not hamper development.
8. Computer: The harbinger of a silent revolution.

In the year 1994, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. The challenge before a civil servant today.
2. Indian society at the cross road.
3. Youth is a blunder, manhood a struggle, old age a regret.
4. Modernization and Westernization are not identical concepts.
5. A useless life is an early death.
6. Politics, business and bureaucracy—a fatal triangle.
7. Multinational corporations-saviours or saboteurs.

In the year 1995, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Politics without ethics is a disaster.
2. The new emerging woman power the ground realities.
3. When money speaks, the truth is silent.
4. Whither Indian democracy?
5. Restructuring of the Indian education system.
6. Disinterested intellectual curiosity is the life blood of real civilization.
7. Our deeds determine us as much as we determine our deeds.

In the year 1996, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Literacy is growing very fast but there is no corresponding growth in education.
2. Restructuring of the UNO to reflect present realities.
3. New cults and godman— a threat to traditional religions.
4. The VIP cult is a bane of Indian democracy.
5. Need for transparency in Public Administration.
6. Truth is lived, not taught.

In the year 1997, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. What we have not learnt during fifty years of Independence.
2. Judicial activism.
3. Great political power will not improve women's plight.
4. True religion can not be misused.
5. The modern doctors and its patients.
6. Urbanization is a blessing in disguise.

In the year 1998, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Composite culture of India.
2. Woman is god's best creation.
3. Misinterpretation and misuse of freedom in India.
4. India's contribution to world's wisdom.
5. The language problem in India - its past, present and prospects.
6. World of the 21st century.

In the year 1999, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Women's empowerment–The challenge and prospect.
2. The youth culture today.
3. Mass media and cultural invasion.
4. Resource management in the Indian context.
5. Value based science and education.
6. Reservation, politics and empowerment.

In the year 2000, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Why should we be proud of being Indians?
2. The Cyber World — Its charms & challenges.
3. The country’s need for a better disaster management system.
4. Indian Culture today—a myth or a reality?
5. The implication of Globalisation for India.
6. Modernism and our transitional socio-ethical values.

In the year 2001, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. What have we gained from our democratic set-up?
2. My vision of an ideal world order.
3. The march of science and the erosion of human values.
4. Irrelevance of the classroom.
5. The pursuit of excellence.
6. Empowerment alone cannot help our women.

In the year 2002, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Modern technological education and human values.
2. Search for truth can only be a spiritual problem.
3. If youth knew, if age could.
4. The paths of glory lead but to the grave.
5. Privatization of higher education in India.
6. Responsibility of media in a democracy.

In the year 2003, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. The Masks of New Imperialism.
2. How far has democracy in India delivered the goods?
3. How should a civil servant conduct himself?
4. As civilization advances culture declines.
5. There is nothing either good or bad but thinking makes it so.
6. Spirituality and Scientific temper.

In the year 2004, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. India’s Role in Promoting ASEAN Co-operation.
2. Judicial Activism and Indian Democracy.
3. Whither Women’s Emancipation?
4. Globalizations and Its Impact on Indian Culture.
5. The Lure of Space.
6. Water Resources Should Be Under the Control of the Central Government.

In the year 2005, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Justice must reach the poor.
2. The hand that rocks the cradle.
3. If women ruled the world.
4. What is real education?
5. Terrorism and world peace.
6. Food security for sustainable national development.

In the year 2006, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Women’s Reservation Bill Would Usher in Empowerment for Women in India.
2. Protection of Ecology and Environment is Essential for Sustained Economic Development.
3. Importance of Indo-U.S. Nuclear Agreement.
4. “Education for All” Campaign in India: Myth or Reality.
5. Globalization Would Finish Small-Scale Industries in India.
6. Increasing Computerization Would lead to the Creation of a Dehumanized Society.

In the year 2007, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Independent thinking should be encouraged right form the childhood.
2. Evaluation of Panchayati Raj System in India from the point of view of eradication of power to people.
3. Attitude makes, habit makes character and character makes a man.
4. Is Autonomy the best answer to combat balkanization?
5. How has satellite television brought about cultural change in Indian mindsets.
6. BPO boom in India.

In the year 2008, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Role of Media in good governance.
2. National Identity and Patriotism.
3. Special Economic Zone: Boon or Bane.
4. Discipline means success , anarchy means ruin.
5. Urbanisation and Its Hazards.
6. Is an Egalitarian society possible by educating the masses?

In the year 2009, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Are our traditional handicrafts doomed to a slow death?
2. Are  we a ‘Soft’ state?
3. “The focus of health care is increasingly getting skewed towards the ‘haves’ of our society”.
4. “Good Fences make good neighbours”.
5. ‘Globalization’ vs. ‘Nationalism’.

In the year 2010, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Geography may remain the same; history need not.
2. Should a moratorium be imposed on all fresh mining in tribal areas of the country?
3. Preparedness of our society for India’s global leadership role.
4. From traditional Indian philanthropy to the Gates-Buffet model-a natural progression or a paradigm shift?

In the year 2011, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Creation of smaller states and the consequent administrative , economic and developmental implication.
2. Does Indian Cinema shape our popular culture or merely reflect it.
3. Credit – based higher education system – status , opportunities and challenges.
4. In the Indian context, Both human intelligence and technical intelligence are crucial in combating terrorism.

In the year 2012, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. In the context of Gandhiji’s views on the matter, explore, on an evolutionary scale, the terms ‘Swadhinata’, ‘Swaraj’ and ‘Dharmarajya’. Critically comment on their contemporary relevance to Indian democracy.
2. Is the criticism that the ‘Public-Private-Partnership’ (PPP) model for development is more of a bane than a boon in the Indian context, justified?
3. Science and Mysticism: Are they compatible?
4. Managing work and home – is the Indian working woman getting a fair deal?

In the year 2013, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Be the change you want to see in others (Gandhi).
2. Is the Colonial mentality hindering India’s Success.
3. GDP (Gross Domestic Product) along with GDH (Gross Domestic Happiness) would be the right indices for judging the well being of a country.
4. Science and technology is the panacea for the growth and security of the nation.

In the year 2014, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:
Section A

1. With greater power comes greater responsibility.
2. Is the growing level of competition good for youth?
3. Are the standardized tests good measures of academic ability or progress?
4. Words are sharper than the two-edged sword.

Section B

1. Was it the policy paralysis or the paralysis of implementation which slowed the growth of our country?
2. Is sting operation an invasion on privacy?
3. “Fifty Golds in Olympics”: Can this be a reality for India?
4. “Tourism”: Can this be the next big thing for India?

In the year 2015, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:
Section-A

1. Lending hands to someone is better than giving a dole.
2. Quick but steady wins the race.
3. Character of an institution is reflected in its leader.
4. Education without values, as useful as it is, seems rather to make a man more clever devil.

Section-B

1. Technology cannot replace manpower.
2. Crisis faced in India – moral or economic.
3. Dreams which should not let India sleep.
4. Can capitalism bring inclusive growth?

In the year 2016, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:
Section - A 

1. If development is not engendered, it is endangered.
2. Need brings greed, if greed increases it spoils breed.
3. Water disputes between states in Federal India.
4. Innovation is the key determinant of economic growth & social welfare.

Section - B 

1. Cooperative federalism: Myth or reality.
2. Cyberspace and Internet: Blessing or curse to the human civilisation in the long run.
3. Near jobless growth in India: An anomaly or an outcome of economic reforms.
4. Digital economy: A leveller or a source of economic inequality.

In the year 2017, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:
Section - A

1. Farming has lost the ability to be a source of subsistence for majority of farmers in India.
2. Impact of the new economic measures on fiscal ties between the union and states in India.
3. Destiny of a nation is shaped in its classrooms.
4. Has the Non- Alignment Movement(NAM) lost its relevance in a multipolar world?

Section - B

1. Joy is the simplest form of gratitude.
2. Fulfillment of ‘new woman’ in India is a myth.
3. We may brave human laws but cannot resist natural laws.
4. Social media is inherently a selfish medium.

In the year 2018, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:
Section - A

1. Alternative technologies for a climate change resilient India
2. A good life is one inspired by love and guided by knowledge
3. Poverty anywhere is a threat to prosperity everywhere
4. Management of Indian border disputes – a complex task

Section - B

1. Customary morality cannot be a guide to modern life 
2. “The past’ is a permanent dimension of human consciousness and values 
3. A people that values its privileges above its principles loses both 
4. Reality does not conform to the ideal, but confirms it 

In the year 2019, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:
Section - A

1. Wisdom finds truth
2. Values are not what humanity is, but what humanity ought to be
3. Best for an individual is not necessarily best for the society
4. Courage to accept and dedication to improve are two keys to success

Section - B

1. South Asian societies are woven not around the state, but around their plural cultures and plural identities
2. Neglect of primary health care and education in India are reasons for its backwardness
3. Biased media is a real threat to Indian democracy
4. Rise of Artificial Intelligence: The threat of a jobless future or better job opportunities through reskilling and up-skilling.

In the year 2020, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

Section - A

1. Life is a long journey between human beings and being humane.

2. Mindful manifesto is the catalyst to a tranquil self.

3. Ships do not sink because of water around them, ships sink because of water that gets into them.

4. Simplicity is the ultimate sophistication.

Section - B

1. Culture is what we are, civilisation is what we have.

2. There can be no social justice without economic prosperity but economic prosperity without social justice is meaningless.

3. Patriarchy is the least noticed yet the most significant structure of social inequality.

4. Technology as the silent factor in international relations.

In the year 2021, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

Section - A

1. The process of self-discovery has now been technologically outsourced.

2. Your perception of me is a reflection of you; my reaction to you is an awareness of me.

3. Philosophy of wantlessness is Utopian, while materialism is a chimera.

4. The real is rational and the rational is real.

Section - B

5. Hand that rocks the cradle rules the world.

6. What is research, but a blind date with knowledge

7. History repeats itself, first as a tragedy, second as a farce.

8. There are better practices to “best practices”.

The purpose behind the introduction of the essay paper in the UPSC Civil Services Examination is to test the candidates’ writing skills. This means the simple, effective and original expression of one’s ideas.
The essays written in the resources are of the level that one would write in the final UPSC exam. So, these essays are not intended to be crammed. These are personal creations and so have an individuality of their own. These essays are expected to act as a catalyst to spark your mind with ideas. These should induce you to develop a wide perspective and a better line of thought on the topics so that you can write your own imagination in a manner that is appealing for the examiner as well. The intention is not to limit your thinking but to widen it.

FAQs related to Essay writing in UPSC

1. Do essay questions repeat in UPSC?
   Yes, it is correct! There are certain questions in UPSC examinations that are repeated from the previous year's tests, but only for a few topics. Repetitive questions from disciplines such as history, economics, and Indian politics have been noted for the previous 10 years.
2. Is handwriting important in UPSC?
   You must practise writing answers in order to pass the UPSC civil services test, and while doing so, you should also practise decent handwriting. It would undoubtedly assist you in achieving high results in the mains test. If you already have clear handwriting, don't bother too much about not having 'beautiful' writing.
3. How many pages should a UPSC essay be?
   A basic rule to remember in the test hall is that if the question has a word limit of 150 words, the answer should be written on one and a half A4 pages. If the number is 250, limit your response to 2.5 A4 pages. Not only will precise answers help you get better grades, but they will also save you a lot of time.

INTRODUCTION: THE VEDIC PERIOD

Introduction

• In previous chapters on the prehistoric period, you have seen that in different regions of India communities of different stages of cultural development were present during Ca. 2000-1000 B.C. 
• Their cultures were agro-pastoral and our understanding of these cultures is based entirely on archaeological remains because, with the exception of Harappa culture, none of these has left behind any written records. 
• However, we had before on the evidence provided by a voluminous body of religious texts which are considered by the literary records of India. We shall also try to supplement this evidence with, wherever relevant, archaeological evidence. 

The Vedas are the earliest manuscripts

The Rig Veda is considered to be the earliest of hymns available, and so, we shall start by examining the Rigveda for an understanding of the Early Vedic period and then go on to other Vedas and allied texts which are placed later. This exercise is necessary for two reasons. 

• First, the Vedas are thought to have been composed by the Aryans and it was long believed that the Aryans played a major role in civilising the Indian subcontinent. The contents of the Rigveda, if they are analysed carefully, do not give the impression of very advanced material culture. On the other hand, many of the material traits, which are characteristic of Indian civilization, are already present in the non-Vedic archaeological cultures in different parts of India. 
• Second, when the contents of the Rigveda are compared with the contents of Later Vedas and allied texts, it becomes clear that significant changes took place in the Vedic society itself.                                        

The 16 Mahajanapadas

• This means that there was no linked cultural pattern which can be called Vedic culture or Aryan culture. The core geographical area to which the evidence of the Rigveda could relate was Sapta-Sindhu or the land of seven rivers. This would correspond to the whole of Punjab and its neighbouring region Haryana, but Rigvedic geography also included the Gomal plains, southern Afghanistan and southern Jammu and Kashmir. Indo-Aryan migration from West Asia into the Indian subcontinent.
• These migrants who are regarded as the authors of the 'Vedas' are called the Vedic people. According to this historical interpretation, the Aryans came to India in several stages or waves. The Aryans are considered to represent a linguistic group speaking Indo-European languages. They are distinguished by traditional historians and archaeologists from the non-Aryan Harappans of the preceding period.
• However, in making certain observations on Early Vedic society it may be fruitful to see if literary texts and archaeological evidence can supplement each other. If both types of sources are of the same region and of the same period, then they together can give us more detected ideas on economic, social, political and religious life.  

Was the Aryan invasion a myth or a reality? 

Let us see to what extent archaeological evidence help us in answering this question. Archaeologists have attempted to relate the various post-Harappan cultures with the Aryans. 

• The Painted Grey Ware Pottery which has been dated between 900 B.C. to approximately 500 B.C., has been repeatedly connected with Aryan craftsmanship. Their argument is based on inferences that historians make from their analysis of the literary texts. 
• Hence, archaeologists, following linguistic similarities found between the Rigveda and the Avesta, tried to find similarities in pottery forms, paintings on ceramics and forms of copper objects etc. between post-Harappan and the West Asian/Iranian Chalcolithic assemblages. Such similarities were magnified to support the view that the Aryans were a group of people who migrated from West Asia to the Indian subcontinent. 

The Route of Aryans

Thus literary and archaeological sources were made to support one another in order to validate the notion of migration. Linguistic similarities between the Rigveda and the Avesta are not disputed. But such similarities do not really suggest large-scale migration of people into the Indian subcontinent. 

Also, the similarities which have been found between chalcolithic artefacts of India and those of Western Asia are only occasional. They also do not suggest large-scale migration of people. The concept of an "Aryan", as stated before, cannot be equated with any particular type of pottery. It also does not have any ethnic or racial significance. The 'Aryan' is, therefore, at best a vague concept, related to linguistic similarities between people. 

THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD

The Later Vedic Age (1000BC - 600BC)

The period that followed Rig Vedic Age is known as Later Vedic Age. This age witnessed the composition of three later Veda Samhitas namely, the Samaveda Samhita, the Yajurveda Samhita, the Atharvaveda Samhita as well as Brahmanas and the Upanishads of all the four Vedas and later on the two great epics—the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
A pathshala in Vedic AgeThe spread of Aryans over the whole of India completed before 400 B.C. Of the new kingdoms in the east, the most important were Kuru, Panchala, magadha, and Koshala.
Gradually the Aryans moved towards South India. It is believed that their southern movement began during the period of Brahmana literature, about 1000 B.C. and went on steadily till they reached the southernmost extremity of the Peninsula in or sometime before fourth century B.C.
Route of Aryans before 4th century B.C

Political Organiation During Later Vedic Period

(i) Rise of Big States: With the progress of Aryan settlements in the eastern and southern part of India, the small tribal states of Rig Vedic period replaced by powerful states. Many famous tribes of Rig Vedic period like Bharatas, Purus, Trismus and Durvasa passed into oblivion and new tribes like the Kurus and Panchalas rose into prominence. The land of the Yamuna and Ganga in the east which became the new home of the Aryans rose into prominence.

(ii) Growth of Imperialism: With the emergence of big kingdoms in the Later Vedic Age the struggle for supremacy among different states was of frequent occurrence. The ideal of Sarbabhauma or universal empire loomed large in the political horizon of ancient India. The sacrifices like Rajasuya and Ashvamedha were performed to signify the imperial sway of monarchs over the rivals.
Ashvamedha RitualThese rituals impressed the people with the increasing power and prestige of the king. The Rig Vedic title of “Rajan” was replaced by the impressive titles like Samrat, Ekrat, Virat, Bhoja etc. These titles marked the growth of imperialism and feudal ideas.
Origin of Kingship: There were two theories regarding the origin of kingship. The Aitareya Brahmana explained the rational theory of election by common consent of origin of kingship. Side by side the taittiriya Brahman explained the divine origin of kingship. It explained how Indra, “though occupying a low rank among the gods, was created their king by Prajapati.”

Growth of Royal Power: The king had absolute power. He became the master of all subjects. He realized taxes like “bali”, “sulka” and “bhaga”. The Satapatha Brahmana described the king to be infallible and immune from all punishment. The sabha of the Rig Vedic Period died. The king sought the aid and support of the Samiti on matters like war, peace and fiscal policies. There are references to the Samiti sometimes electing or re-electing a king.

Social Condition during Vedic Period
Changes of far greater significance were gradually taking place in their society.

(i) Caste Society: Most important change was the evolution of caste system. Various sub castes evolved in addition to the traditional four-castes. 

The Brahmana and Kshatriyas emerged as the two leading castes out of the general mass of population, known as Vaishyas. The Vaishyas were superior to the sudra but their position was steadily deteriorating.
The Aitareya Brahmana clearly indicates the absolute dependence of Vaishyas on the two higher classes. The Sudras were held in great contempt.

(ii) Education: A vast mass of vedic literature as well as a highly developed intellectual life speaks abundantly about a well-planned system of education in the later Vedic Period. The students had to learn Vedas, Upanishad, grammar, law, arithmetic and language.
(iii) Position of women: The women lost their high position which they had in the Rig Vedic Age. They were deprived of their right to the Upanayana ceremony and all their sacraments, excluding marriage, were performed without recitation of Vedic mantras. Polygamy prevailed in the society. Many of the religious ceremonies, formerly practiced by the wife, were now performed by the priests.

She was not allowed to attend the political assemblies. Birth of a daughter became undesirable—for she was regarded as a source of misery. The custom of child marriage and dowry crept in. The women lost their honored position in the society.

Economic Condition During Vedic Period

Like political and social conditions, the economic condition of the Aryans of the later Vedic period also underwent significant changes. Due to the emergence of caste system various occupations also appeared.
(i) Agriculture: The Aryans of the later Vedic period lived in the villages. In the villages small peasant owners of land were replaced by big landlords who secured possession of entire villages. Agriculture was the principal occupation of the people. Improved method of tilling the land by deep ploughing, manuring and sowing with better seeds were known to the Aryans. More lands were brought under cultivation.
(ii) Trade and Commerce: With the growth of civilization, the volume of trade and commerce had increased by leaps and bounds. Both inland and overseas trades were developed. Inland trade was carried on with the Kiratas inhabiting the mountains. They exchanged the herbs for clothes, mattresses and skins. The people became familiar with the navigation of the seas. Regular coinage was not started.
(iii) Occupation: The emergence of caste system brought varieties of means of livelihood. There are references about money lenders, chariot makers, dyers, weavers, barbers, goldsmiths, iron smiths, washer men, bow makers, carpenters, musicians etc. The art of writing probably developed in this period. The use of silver was increased and ornaments were made out of it.

Religious Condition During Later Vedic Period

During the later Vedic period the religious spirit underwent a great change. Religion was overshadowed with rites and rituals. New gods and goddesses emerged during this period.
(i) New Gods: The Rig Vedic gods, Varun, Indra, Agni, Surya, Usha etc. lost their charm. The people worshipped them with less zeal. New gods like Siva, Rupa, Vishnu, Brahma etc. appeared in the religious firmament of the Later Vedic Period. The grandeur of the Rigvedic gods passed into oblivion, though we find in Atharvaveda the omniscience of Varuna or the beneficence of the Earth goddess.
(ii) Rituals and Sacrifices: During this period the rites and ceremonies of Vedic religion were elaborated and become complex. In the Rig Vedic age Yajnas were a simple affair which every householder could do. But in the later Vedic age sacrifice became an important thing in worship. Now the priestly class devoted their energy to find out the hidden and mystic meaning of the rites and ceremonies.
Later Vedic period is marked by lineages of clans, and small kingdoms developed in many parts of the Ganga valley, leading to the development of the state after 600 BCE. The idea of janapada and rashtra as territorial units had developed. The raja wielded much power and the social divisions began to strike deep roots. The varna system had developed well and Sudra identity became more marked during this period.

ADVENT OF ARYANS AND RIG VEDIC PERIOD

Aryans

Aryans were people who were said to speak an archaic Indo-European language and who were thought to have settled in prehistoric times in ancient Iran and the northern Indian subcontinent. 

• Aryan is a designation originally meaning “civilized”, “noble”, or “free” without reference to any ethnicity.
• It was first applied as a self-identifying term by a migratory group of people from Central Asia later known as Indo-Iranians (who settled on the Iranian Plateau) and, later, applied to Indo-Aryans (who travelled south to settle northern India).
• They spoke Indo Iranian, Indo European or Sanskrit. It is said that Aryans lived in East of Alps (Eurasia), Central Asia, Arctic region, Germany, and Southern Russia. 

Migration of Aryans to India

• There are multiple theories that talk about the original location of Aryans and where they come from and the time period of their migration into India. 
• The migration happened over a period of time starting around 2000BCE and peaked after the decline of IVC. Later they migrated westwards, southwards and eastwards.

Map showing how Aryans migrated to India

• Some say they came from the area around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia (Max Muller), while others think they originated from the Russian Steppes.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak was of the opinion that the Aryans came from the Arctic region.

The Vedic Age

The Vedic Age was between 1500 BC and 600 BC. In this time period the Vedas were composed in the northern Indian subcontinent. 

The Vedas

The Vedas, are the oldest texts of Hinduism. They are derived from the ancient Indo-Aryan culture of the Indian Subcontinent and began as an oral tradition that was passed down through generations before finally being written in vedic Sanskrit. 

The Four Vedas, on which the periods were named after are:
(i) The Rigveda: The oldest Veda is the Rigveda. It has 1028 hymns called ‘Suktas’ and is a collection of 10 books called ‘Mandalas.’
(ii) Samaveda: Known as the Veda of melodies and chants, Samaveda dates back to 1200-800 BCE. This Veda is related to public worship.
(iii) Yajur Veda: Yajurveda dates back to 1100-800 BCE; corresponding with Samaveda. It compiles ritual-offering mantras/chants. These chants were offered by the priest alongside a person who used to perform a ritual.
(iv) Atharva Veda: This Veda contains hymns many of which were charms and magic spells that are meant to be pronounced by the person who seeks some benefit, or more often by a sorcerer who would say it on his or her behalf.

Try yourself:After which Veda, the Early Vedic Period was named after?

• a.Yajur veda
• b.Sama veda
• c.Atharva veda
• d.Rig veda

• The Vedic period or Vedic age is the next major civilization that occurred in ancient India after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization by 1400 BC.
  The Vedic period can further be divided into 2 parts:
• Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)
• The Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)

Early Vedic Period or The Rig Vedic Period

Since the Rigveda is considered the oldest of all the vedas, the Early vedic period i,e. 1800–1500 BCE is also called the Rigvedic period. 

Features of the Rig Vedic Period

Political Structure

• The political units during the Rig Vedic or the early Vedic period comprised of Grama (village), Vis (clan), and Jana (people). 
• Aryans were organized into tribes rather than kingdoms. The chief of a tribe was called a Rajan. 
• The autonomy of the Rajan was restricted by the tribal councils called Sabha and Samiti. 
• The two bodies were, in part, responsible for the governance of the tribe. The Rajan could not accede to the throne without their approval.

Form of Government

• Monarchy was the normal form of Government. 
• Kingship was hereditary. But there was a sort of hierarchy in some states, several members of the royal family exercising the power in common. 
• There were references to a democratic form of government and their chiefs were elected by the assembled people.

The King

• The kingdom was small in extent. The king enjoyed a position of pre-eminence in the tribe. Kingship was hereditary. 
• He was appointed by the priest as king in the ‘Abhisheka’ Ceremony. He wore gorgeous robes and lived in a splendid palace, gaily decorated than a common building. 
• The king had the duty to protect the life and property of his people.
  
• The sacred duty of the king was the protection of the tribes and the territory and the maintenance of priests for the performance of sacrifices. 
• Maintenance of law and order was his principal duty. He maintained justice with the help of Purohit's. He collected tributes known as “Bali” in kind from his subjects.

Try yourself:What form of government existed during the early Vedic period?

• a.Aristocracy
• b.Dyarchy
• c.Monarchy
• d.Theocracy

Officials

• In the work of administration, the king was assisted by a number of functionaries like the purohita (priest), the Senani (general) the Gramani (village headman). 
• Purohit was the most important officer of the state.
  
  Purohit performing rituals

The Army

• The army was mainly consisting of Patti (infantry) and Rathi's (chariots). The weapons used by the soldiers were bows, arrows, swords, axes and spears. 
• These weapons were made up of irons. The soldiers were organized into units known as Sardha, Vrata and gala.
  
  Ancient Indian warfare

Popular Assemblies

• The Rig Veda mentions the names of two popular assemblies known as Sabha and Samiti. 
• Though the king enjoyed substantial power yet he was not an autocrat. In the work of administration, he consulted these two bodies and act according to their decision. Sabha was a select body of elders. 
• The head of the sabha was known as ‘Sabhapati’.

Try yourself:Who was the most important officer of the state?

• a.Purohita
• b.Rajan
• c.Senani
• d.Gramani

Economic Structure

• The concept of Varna, along with the rules of marriage, was made quite stiff. Social stratification took place, with the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas being considered higher than the Shudras and the Vaisyas. 
• Cows and bulls were accorded religious significance. Aryans followed a mixed economy i.e. pastoral and agricultural in which cattle played a predominant part. 
• The standard unit of exchange was Cow. The world's oldest currency coins were issued in ancient India during the Vedic period and were called Nishka and Mana. Nishka coins were small gold units of definite weight.

Coins of Vedic Period

Occupation

• Apart from agriculture and animal husbandry Aryans had also other occupations. Weaving was the most important occupation. 
• We learned about the weavers of wool and cotton together with the workers in the subsidiary industries of dying and embroidery. 
• The carpenters built houses, chariots, wagons and supplied household utensils and furniture.

Trade and Commerce

• There were trade and maritime activity. Sometimes traders made the journey to distant lands for larger profits in trade. 
• There was probably commercial intercourse with Babylon and other countries in Western Asia. The principal media of trade was barter. 
• The cow was used as a unit of value. Gradually pieces of gold called “nishka” were used as means of exchange. 
• Trade and commerce were regulated and managed by a group of people called “Pani”.

Try yourself:Which animal was considered a symbol of wealth and prosperity?

• a.Horse
• b.Goat
• c.Buffalo
• d.Cow

Social Structure

• The family was regarded as the social and political unit. It was the nucleus of the social life of the early Aryans. 
• The father was the head of the family and he was known as “grihapati”. The Aryans had joint families. The father had great authority over the children.

Position of Women

• In the early Vedic age women enjoyed an honoured place in society. 
• The wife was the mistress of the household and authority over the slaves. In all religious ceremonies, she participated with her husband.
•  The Prada system was not prevalent in society. Sati system was also not prevalent during this period
• The Rig-Veda mentions the names of some learned ladies like Viswavara, Apala and Ghosa who composed mantras and attained the rank of Rishis. The girls were married after attaining puberty. 
• The practice of ‘Swayamvara’ was also prevalent in society. Monogamy was the general practice. Remarriage of widows was permitted.

Education

• In the Rig-Vedic age great importance was given to education. 
• There were Gurukuls which imparted education to the disciples after their sacred-thread ceremony. 
• Entire instruction was given orally. The Vedic education aimed at proper development of mind and body. 
• The disciples were taught about ethics, the art of warfare, the art of metal and the concept of Brahma and philosophy, and basic sciences like agriculture, animal husbandry, and handicrafts.

Gurukul

Caste System

• In the early Vedic age there was no caste system. Members of the same family took to different arts, crafts, and trades. 
• People could change their occupation according to their needs or talents. There was hardly any restriction in intermarriage, change of occupation. 
• There was no restriction on taking food cooked by the Sudras.

Agriculture

• Reference in Rig-Veda shows that agriculture was the principal occupation of the people. 
• They ploughed the field by means of a pair of oxen. Rig-Veda even mentions that 24 oxen were attached to a ploughshare at the same time to plough the land. 
• The ploughed land was known as Urvara or Kshetra. Water was supplied into the fields by means of an irrigation canal. 
• The use of manure was known to them.
  
  Farming
• Barley and wheat were mainly cultivated. Cotton and oilseeds were also grown. Rice was perhaps not extensively cultivated. Agriculture was their main source of income.

Domestication of Animals

• Besides agriculture, cattle breeding was another means of living. There are prayers in the Vedas for Gosu (cattle). 
• Cows were held in great respect. Cows were symbols of the wealth and prosperity of the Aryans. Sometimes cows were the medium of exchange. 
• The Aryans had also domesticated animals like horse, ox, dog, goat, sheep, buffalo and donkey.

Cattle Rearing

Transport and Communication

• The chief means of transport by land were rath (Chariots) and wagons drawn by horses and oxen. 
• Riding on horseback was also in vogue.

Religion

• Rishis, composers of the hymns of the Rig Veda, were considered to be divine. The main deities were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial fire), and Soma.
  
  Gods mentioned in Rig Veda
• People also worshipped Mitra-Varuna, Surya (Sun), Vayu (wind), Usha (dawn), Prithvi (Earth) and Aditi (the mother of gods). Yoga and Vedanta became the basic elements of religion.

The Emergence of Mahajanapadas (600-321 BC)

• In the later Vedic period, the tribal organisations changed their identity and gradually shifted to the territorial identity, and the area of settlement was now regarded as janapadas or states. 
• In the transition from tribal to monarchy, they lost the essential democratic pattern of the tribe but retained the idea of government through an assembly representing the tribes. 

Mahajanapadas

• These states consisted of either a single tribe such as Shakyas, Kolias, Malas etc.
• The people in the lower Ganges Valley and Delta, which were outside the Aryan pale, were not incorporated. 
• There was, therefore, a strong consciousness of the pure land of the Aryans called Aryavarta. 
• Each janapada tried to dominate and subjugate other janapadas to become Mahajanapadas.
  
  
  
  
  

 Important Republics

• The kings in these states had supreme authority. 
• The Mahajanpadas of Vriji, Malla, Kuru, Panchal and Kamboj were republican states and so were other smaller states like Lichhavi, Shakya, Koliya, Bhagga, and Moriya.
• These republican states had a Gana-parishad or an Assembly of senior and responsible citizens. 
• This Gana-Parishad had the supreme authority in the state. All the administrative decisions were taken by this Parishad. 

Again, the republics were basically of two types: 

1. The republics comprising a single tribe like those of the Sakyas, the Kolias and the Mallas, and 
2. The republics comprising a number of tribes or the republics of confederacy like the Vrijjis. 

Try yourself:Match the following Mahajanapadas with their capitals

• a.A - 5 , B - 1, C- 2, D- 3, E- 4
  
• b.A - 2, B - 1, C - 5, D - 4, E - 3
• c.A- 4, B - 1, C- 3, D- 2, E - 5
  
• d.A - 5, B- 3, C- 4, D - 1, E- 2

Difference between Republics and Monarchies 

• In republics, every tribal oligarch claimed share in revenues from peasants. In the monarchies, the king claimed to be the sole recipient of such revenues.
• In the tribal oligarchy or republic, each raja (tribal oligarch) was free to maintain his own little army under his Senapati. In a monarchy, the king maintained his regular standing army. He did not permit any other armed forces within his boundaries.
• Republics functioned under the leadership of the oligarchic assemblies, while a monarchy functioned under the individual leadership of the king.
• The Brahmanas had a considerable influence on the monarchial administration, while they were relegated to the background in the republics.

ADVENT OF ARYANS AND RIG VEDIC PERIOD

Original Home and Identity

• It is difficult to say that all the earliest Aryans belonged to one race, but their culture was more or less of the same type. They were distinguished by their common language.People in Rigveda Period: Aryans
• They spoke the Indo-European languages, which are current in changed forms all over Europe, Iran and the greater part of the Indian subcontinent. Originally the Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the steppes stretching from southern Russia to Central Asia. 
• Their earliest life seems to have been mainly postoral, agriculture being a secondary occupation. Although the Aryans used several animals, the horse played the most significant role in their life. Its swiftness enabled them and some allied people to make successful inroads on West. Asia from about 2000 B.C. onwards.
• On their way to India to Aryans first appeared in Central Asia and Iran, where the Indo-Iranians lived for a long time. We know about the Aryans in India from the Rig Veda. The term Arya occurs 36 times in this text, and generally indicates a cultural community.
• The Rig Veda is the earliest text of the Indo European languages. It is a collection of prayers offered to Agni, Indra, Mitra, Varun and other gods by various families of poets or sages. It consists of ten mandalas or books, of which Books II to VII forms its earliest portions. Books I and X seem to have been the latest additions.
• The Rig Veda has many things in common with the Avesta, which is the oldest text in the Iranian language. The two texts use the same names for several gods and even for social classes. But the earliest specimen of the Indo-European language is found in an inscription of about 2200 B.C. from Iraq Later such specimens occur in Hittite inscriptions in Anatolia (Turkey) from the nineteenth to the seventeenth centuries B.C.
• Aryan names appear in Kassite inscriptions of about 1600 B.C. from Iraq and in Mitanni inscriptions of the fourteenth century B.C. from the Aryans appeared in India.

Mitanni Inscription

• The earliest Aryans lived in the geographical area covered by eastern Afghanistan, North-West Frontier Province, Punjab and fringes of western Uttar Pradesh. Some rivers of Afghanistan such as the river Kubha, and the river Indus and its five branches, are mentioned in the Rig Veda. The Sindhu, identical with the Indus, is the river par excellence of the Aryans, and it is repeatedly mentioned.
• Another river, the Saraswati, is called Naditama or the best of the rivers in the Rig Veda. The whole region in which the Aryans first settled in the Indian subcontinent is called the Land of the Seven Rivers.

Tribal Conflicts 

• We hear of many defeats inflicted by Indra on the enemies of the Aryans. In the Rig Veda Indra is called Purandara which means that he was the breaker of forts. 
• The Aryans succeeded everywhere because they possessed chariots driven by horses, and introduced them for the first time into West Asia and India. The Aryan soldiers were probably equipped also with coats of mail (vaiman) and better arms.

Aryans with Chariot

• According to tradition, the Aryans were divided into five tribes panchajana but there might have been other tribes also. The Bharatas and the Tritsu were the ruling Aryan clans, and they were supported by priest Vasisththa.
• The country Bharatavarsha was eventually named after the tribe Bharata, which appears first in the Rig Veda. The Bharata ruling clan was opposed by a host of ten chiefs, five of whom were heads of aryan tribes and the remaining five of non-aryan people. The battle that was fought between the Bharatas on the one hand and the host of ten chiefs on the other is known as the Battle of Ten Kings. 
• This battle was fought on the river Parushni, identical with the river Ravi and it gave victory to Sudas and established the supremacy of the Bharatas. Of the defeated tribes, the most important was that of the Purus. Subsequently, the Bharatas joined hands with the Purus and formed a new ruling tribe called the Kurus. The Kurus combined with the Panchalas, and they together established their rule in the upper Gangetic basin where they played an important part in later Vedic times.

Material Life 

• The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of agriculture. Ploughshare is mentioned in the earliest part of the Rig Veda though some consider it an interpolation. Possibly this ploughshare was made of wood. They were acquainted with sowing, harvesting and threshing, and knew about the different seasons.
• In spite of all this, there are so many references to the cow and the bull in the Rig Veda that the Rig Vedic Aryans can be called predominantly a pastoral people. Most of their wars were fought for the sake of cows. The terms for war in the Rig Veda is gavishthi or search for cows. The cow seems to have been the most important form of wealth. The Rig Veda, mentions such artisans as the carpenter, the chariot-maker, the weaver, the leather worker, the potter, etc.

Terms used by rigvedic aryans

• This indicates that they practised all these crafts. The term ayas used for copper or bronze show that metal-working was known. But we have no clear evidence of the existence of regular trade. The Aryans or the Vedic people were acquainted more with land routes because the word samudra mentioned in the Rig Veda mainly denotes a collection of water. We may, therefore, this of a pre iron phase of the PGW which coincided with the Rig Vedic phase.

Tribal Polity

• The administrative machinery of the Aryans in the Rig period worked with the tribal chief in the centre, because of his successful leadership in war. He was called Rajan.
• It seems that in the Rig Vedic period the king’s post had become hereditary. We have traces of election of the king by the tribal assembly called the Samiti. The king was called the protector of his tribe.
• Several tribal or the clan-based assemblies such as the sabha, samiti, vidatha, gana is mentioned in the Rig Veda. They exercised deliberative, military and religious functions. Even women attended the sabha and vidatha in Rig Vedic times. But the two most important assemblies were the Sabha and the Samiti. These two were so important that the chiefs or the kings showed eagerness to win their-support.
• In the day-to-day administration, the king was assisted by a few functionaries. The most important functionary seems to have been the purohita. Sage Vasishtha

• The two priests who played a major part in the time of Rig Veda are Vashishta and Vishwamitra. Vishwamitra composed the gayatri mantra to widen the Aryan world. The next important functionary seems to be the senani, who used spears, axes, swords, etc. We do not come across any officer concerned with the collection of taxes.
• Probably the chiefs received from the people voluntary offerings called Bali. Presents and spoils of war were perhaps distributed in some Vedic assemblies. The Rig Veda does not mention any officer for administering justice. Spies were employed to keep an eye on such unsocial activities.
• The officer who enjoyed authority over a large land or pasture ground is called Vrajapati. He led heads of the families called kulapas, or the heads of the fighting hordes called graminis to battle. 
• In the beginning, the gramani was just the head of a small tribal fighting unit. But when the unit settled, the gramani became the head of the village, and in course of time he became identical with the Vrajapati. The king did not maintain any regular or standing army, but in times of war he mustered a militia whose military functions were performed by different tribal groups called vrata, gana, grama, sardha. By and large it was a tribal system of government in which the military element was strong.

Try yourself:With reference to the administrative machinery of the Aryans in the Rig period, the term Samiti means?

• a.Tribal clan
• b.Tribal assembly
• c.Tribal leader
• d.Tribal army

Tribe and Family 

• Kinship was the basis of social structure, and a man was identified by the clan to which he belonged. People gave their primary loyalty to the tribe, which was called jana. The term jana occurs at about 275 places in the Rig Veda, and the term janapada or territory is not used even once. The people were attached to the tribe, since the territory or the kingdom, was not yet established.
• Another important term which stands for the tribe in the Rig Veda is vis, it is mentioned 170 times in that text. Probably the vis was divided into grama or smaller tribal units meant for fighting. When the gramas clashed with one another it caused samgrama. The most numerous varna of vaishya arose out of the vis or the mass of the tribal people.
• The term for family (kula) is mentioned rarely in the Rig Veda. It comprised not only mother, father, sons, slaves, etc., but many more people also. It seems that family in early Vedic phase was indicated by the term griha, which frequently occurs in this text. In the earliest Indo-European languages one word is used for nephew, grandson, cousin, etc. It seems that several generations of the family lived under the same roof. Because it was a patriarchal society, the birth of a son was desired again and again, and especially people prayed to the gods for brave sons to fight the wars. 
• In the Rig Veda, no desire is expressed for daughters, though the desire for children and cattle is a recurrent theme in the hymns. Women could attend assemblies. They could offer sacrifices along with their husbands. We have an instance of five women who composed hymns although the later texts mention 20 such women.
• We also notice the practice of levirate and widow remarriage in the Rig Veda. There are no examples of child-marriage, and the marriageable age in the Rig Veda seems to have been 16 to 17.

Social Divisions 

• The Rig Veda mentions Arya varna and Dasa varna. The tribal chiefs and the priests acquired a larger share of the booty, and they naturally grew at the cost of their kinsmen, which created social inequalities in the tribe. Gradually the tribal society was divided into three groups - warriors, priests and the people - on the same pattern as in Iran. The fourth division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig Vedic period, because it is mentioned for the first time in the tenth Book of the Rig Veda, which is the latest addition.
• In the age of the Rig Veda differentiation based on occupations had started. But this division was not very sharp. We hear of a family in which a member says: “I am a poet, my father is a physician, and my mother is a grinder. Earning livelihood through different means we live together”. We hear of gifts of cattle, chariots, horses, slaves, tec.
• Unequal distribution of the spoils of war created social inequalities, and this helped the rise of princes and priests at the cost of the common tribal people. But since the economy was mainly pastoral and not food-producing, the scope for collecting regular tributes from the people was very limited. We do not find gifts of land and even those of cereals are rare. We find domestic slaves but not the wage-earners.
• Tribal elements in society were stronger and social divisions based on the collection of taxes or accumulation of landed property were absent. The society was still tribal and largely egalitarian.

Rig Vedic Gods

• The most important divinity in the Rig Veda is Indra, who is called Purandara or breaker of forts. Indra played the role of a warlord, leading the Aryan soldiers to victory against the demons. Two hundred and fifty hymns are devoted to him. He is considered to be the rain god and thought to be responsible for causing rainfall.
• The second position is held by Agni (fire god) to whom 200 hymns are devoted. Fire played a significant part in the life of primitive people because of its use in burning forests, cooking, etc. The cult of fire occupied a central place not only in India but also in Iran, In Vedic times Agni acted as a king of intermediary between the gods on the one hand, and the people on the other. 
• The third important position is occupied by Varuna who personified water. Varuna was supposed to uphold the natural order, and whatever happened in the world was thought to be the reflection of his desires.
  Varuna
• Soma was considered to be the god of plants and intoxicating drink is named after him. The Maruts personify the storm. This we have a large number of gods., who represent the different forces of nature in one form or another but are also assigned human activities. We also find some female divinities such as Aditi and Ushas who represented the appearance of the dawn. But they were not prominent in the time of the Rig Veda in the set-up of the period the male gods were far more important than the female.
• The dominant mode of worshipping the dos was through the recitation of prayers and offering of sacrifices. Prayers played an important part in Rig Vedic times. Both collective and individual prayers were made.
• Originally every tribe or clan was the votary of a special god. It seems that prayers were offered to gods in chorus by the members of a whole tribe. This also happened in the case of sacrifices. Agni and Indra were invited to partake of sacrifices made by the whole tribe (Jana). Offerings of vegetables, grain, etc. were made to gods. 
• But in Rig Vedic times the process was not accompanied by any ritual or sacrificial formulae. They asked mainly for Praja (children), Pashu (cattle), food, wealth, health, etc.

Try yourself:Who is the most important divinity Rig Vedic period?

• a.Agni
• b.Soma
• c.Aśvins
• d.Indra