PRE HISTORIC PERIOD: Indian History

Introduction

• The earliest known evidence of man in our country was in Bori in Maharashtra and dates back to 1.4 million years ago
• Prehistory is the period that has records of human activities, civilization, using of stone tools. This period doesn’t witness any writings from the civilians, therefore, this period is the prehistoric period in Ancient history.
• Prehistory also refers to the hunter-gather lifestyle of people in that era/ period. Pre-history is the fact of origin of human activities and civilization thousands of years ago. In general, prehistory is divided into 3 ages and hence the name was given "A 3 Age System".
• The 3 ages are: Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.
  These 3 ages give pieces of evidence of human activity in ancient times. These ages are evolutionary ages in humankind.

Stone Age

• The stone age is the prehistoric period, i.e., the period before the development of the script, therefore the main source of information for this period is the archaeological excavations. Robert Bruce Foote is the archaeologist who discovered the first paleolithic tool in India, the Pallavaram handaxe.
• On the basis of geological age, the type and technology of stone tools, and subsistence base, the stone age is classified primarily into three types:
  1. Paleolithic
  2. Mesolithic  
  3. Neolithic

1. The Palaeolithic Age

• The term ‘Palaeolithic’ is derived from the Greek word ‘paleo' which means old and ‘lithic’ meaning stone. Therefore, the term Palaeolithic age refers to the old stone age. 
• The old stone age or paleolithic culture of India developed in the Pleistocene period or the Ice Age, which is a geological period of the age when the earth was covered with ice and weather was so cold that human or plant life could not survive. But in the tropical region, where ice melted, the earliest species of men could exist.
  Living in Paleolithic age

Main characteristics of the Palaeolithic age:

1. The Indian people are believed to have belonged to the ‘Negrito’ race, and lived in the open air, river valleys, caves and rock shelters.
2. They were food gatherers, ate wild fruits and vegetables, and lived on hunting.
3. There was no knowledge of houses, pottery, agriculture. It was only in later stages they discovered fire.
4. In the upper paleolithic age, there is evidence of art in the form of paintings.
5. Humans used unpolished, rough stones like hand axes, choppers, blades, burins and scrapers.

The old stone age or paleolithic age in India is divided into three phases according to the nature of the stone tools used by the people and also according to the nature of the change of climate.
(a) Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to 100,000 BC

• It covers the greater part of the Ice Age.
• Hunters and food gatherers; tools used were hand axes, choppers and cleavers. Tools were rough and heavy.
• One of the earliest lower Palaeolithic sites is Bori in Maharashtra.
• Limestone was also used to make tools.
• Major sites of lower Palaeolithic age: Soan valley (in present Pakistan), Sites in the Thar Desert, Kashmir, Mewar plains, Saurashtra, Gujarat,Central India,Deccan Plateau, Chotanagpur plateau, North of the Cauvery River, Belan valley in UP
• There are habitation sites including caves and rock shelters.
• An important place is Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.

(b) Middle Palaeolithic Age: 100,000 BC – 40,000 BC

• Tools used were flakes, blades, pointers, scrapers and borers.
• The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner.
• There was a decrease in the use of hand axes with respect to other tools.
• Important middle Palaeolithic age sites: Belan valley in UP, Luni valley (Rajasthan), Son and Narmada rivers, Bhimbetka, Tungabhadra river valleys, Potwar Plateau (between Indus & Jhelum), Sanghao cave (near Peshawar, Pakistan)

(c) Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BC – 10,000 BC

• The upper palaeolithic age coincided with the last phase of the ice age when the climate became comparatively warmer and less humid.
• The emergence of Homo sapiens.
• The period is marked by innovation in tools and technology. A lot of bone tools, including needles, harpoons, parallel-sided blades, fishing tools and burin tools.
• One of the major sites were Bhimbhetka (South of Bhopal), where hand axes and cleavers, blades, scrapers and a few burins have been found.
• Major sites of Upper Palaeolithic age: Belan, Son, Chota Nagpur plateau (Bihar), Maharashtra, Orissa and The Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh
• Bone tools have been found only at cave sites of Kurnool and Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi in Andhra Pradesh.

Try yourself:Consider the following statements about Old Stone Age sites. 

1. These sites are generally located near water sources. 

2. Some of these sites were near the places where the stone was easily available and where the people could make stone implements. 

3. Most of these sites are concentrated in Southern India with the exception of Siwalik Hills and Bhimbetka.

Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct? 

a.1 only 

b.2 only 

c.1 and 2

d.All of the above 

2. The Mesolithic Age

• The term Mesolithic is derived from two Greek words – ‘meso’ and ‘lithic’. In Greek ‘meso’ means middle and ‘lithic’ means stone. Hence, the Mesolithic stage of prehistory is also known as the ‘Middle Stone Age’.
• Both Mesolithic and Neolithic phases belong to the Holocene era. In this era, there was a rise in temperature, the climate became warm which resulted in melting of ice and also brought changes in flora and fauna.

Mesolithic age group people

Characteristic Features of the Mesolithic Era

• It intervened as a transitional phase between the Palaeolithic Age and the Neolithic or New Stone Age.
• The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing, and food gathering: at a later stage they also domesticated animals. The first three occupations continued the paleolithic practice, while the last was interrelated with the neolithic culture.
• The characteristic tools of the Mesolithic Age are microliths. The miniature stone tools usually made of crypto-crystalline silica, chalcedony or chert, both of geometrical and non-geometrical shapes. They were not only used as tools but were also used to make composite tools, spearheads, arrowheads, and sickles after hafting them on wooden or bone handles. These microliths enabled the Mesolithic man to hunt smaller animals and birds.
• The Mesolithic men started to wear clothes made of animal skin. The Mesolithic men started to wear clothes made of animal skin.
• The first human colonization of the Ganga Plains happened during this period.
• The people of this era believed in life after death and hence they buried the dead with food items and other goods.
• The mesolithic sites are found in good numbers in Rajasthan, southern Uttar Pradesh, central and eastern India and also south of the river Krishna Of them Bagor in Rajasthan is very well excavated.
• It had a distinctive microlithic industry, and its inhabitants subsisted on hunting and pastoralism. The cultivation of plants around 7000-6000 B.C. is suggested in Rajasthan from a study of the deposits of the former Salt Lake, Sāmbhar.
• The people of the paleolithic and Mesolithic ages practiced painting. Prehistoric art appears in several places, but Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is a striking sight. Situated in the Vindhya range, 45 km south of Bhopal, it has more than 500 painted rock shelters, distributed in an area of 10 sq km.
• Perching birds, which live upon grain, are absent in the earliest group of paintings, which evidently belong to the hunting/gathering economy.

Important Mesolithic Sites

• Bagor in Rajasthan is one of the biggest and best-documented Mesolithic sites in India. Bagor is on river Kothari where microliths along with animal bones and shells have been excavated.
• Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh provides the earliest evidence for the domestication of animals.
• There are about 150 Mesolithic rock art sites across India, with a rich concentration in Central India such as Bhimbetka caves (Madhya Pradesh), Kharwar, Jaora and Kathotia (M.P), Sundargarh and Sambalpur (Odisha), Ezhuthu Guha (Kerala).
• Microliths have also been found in some valleys of river Tapi, Sabarmati, Narmada, and Mahi.
• Langhnaj in Gujarat and Biharanpur in West Bengal are also important Mesolithic sites. Bones of wild animals (rhinoceros, blackbuck, etc.) have been excavated from Langhnaj. Several human skeletons and a large number of microliths have been recovered from these places.
• Though pottery is absent at most Mesolithic sites, it has been found in Langhnaj (Gujarat) and in the Kaimur region of Mirzapur (U.P).

Try yourself:Which of the following describes Mesolithic age 

1. The use of larger stones as tools was the characteristic feature 

2. Smaller animals were hunted in general

Select from the following codes 

• a.1 only 
• b.2 only 
• c.Both 1 and 2 
• d.Neither 1 nor 2

3. The Neolithic Age

• In the world context the New Stone Age began in 9000 B.C.
• The term Neolithic is derived from the Greek word ‘neo’ which means new and ‘lithic’ meaning stone. Thus, the term Neolithic Age refers to the ‘New Stone Age’. 
• It is also termed as ‘Neolithic revolution’ since it introduced a lot of important changes in man’s social and economic life. The Neolithic age saw man turning into a food producer from food gatherer.
• The neolithic phase in south India seems to have covered the period from about 2000 B.C. to 1000 B.C. The Neolithic settlers were the earliest farming communities. They broke the ground with stone hoes and digging sticks at the end of which ring stones weighing one to half a kilogram were fixed. They produced ragi and horse gram (kulathi). The neolithic people of Mehrgarh were more advanced. They produced wheat, cotton, and lived in mud-brick houses.

Characteristic Features of the Neolithic Age

• Tools and Weapons: The people used microlithic blades in addition to tools made of polished stones. The use of celts was especially important for ground and polished hand axes. They also used tools and weapons made of bones – such as needles, scrapers, borers, arrowheads, etc. The use of new polished tools made it easier for humans to cultivate, hunt and perform other activities in a better manner.
• Agriculture: The people of the Neolithic age cultivated land and grew fruits and corn like ragi and horse gram (kulati). They also domesticated cattle, sheep and goats.
• Pottery: With the advent of agriculture, people were required to store their food grains as well as to cook, eat the product, etc. That’s why it is said that pottery appeared in this phase on a large scale. The pottery of this period was classified under greyware, black-burnished ware, and mat impressed ware. In the initial stages of the Neolithic age, handmade pottery was made but later on, foot wheels were used to make pots.
• Housing and Settled Life: The people of Neolithic age lived in rectangular or circular houses which were made of mud and reeds. Neolithic men also knew how to make boats and could spin cotton, wool and weave cloth. The people of the Neolithic age led a more settled life and paved the way for the beginning of civilization.
• The neolithic people did not live far away from the hilly areas. They inhabited mainly the hilly river valleys, rock shelters and the slopes of the hills, since they were entirely dependent on weapons and tools made of stone.
• The period between 9000 B.C. and 3000 B.C. saw remarkable progress of technology in western Asia because the people developed the arts of cultivation, weaving, pot making, house building, domestication of animals, etc. But the Neolithic Age in the Indian subcontinent began around the sixth millennium B.C.

Based on the types of axes used by Neolithic settlers, we notice three important areas of Neolithic settlements:
(a) The north-western group of neolithic tools represents rectangular axes with curved cutting edge.
(b) The north-eastern group shows polished stone axes with rectangular butt and has occasional shouldered hoes.
(c) The southern group is distinguished by axes with oval sides and pointed butt.

Important Neolithic Sites

• Koldihwa and Mahagara (lying south of Allahabad) – This site provides evidence of circular huts along with crude hand made pottery. There is also evidence of rice, which is the oldest evidence of rice, not only in India but anywhere in the world.
• Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan) – The earliest Neolithic site, where people lived in houses built of sun-dried bricks and cultivated crops like cotton and wheat.
• Burzahom (Kashmir) – It means ‘the place of birth’ and is situated 16 km northwest of Srinagar. The domestic dogs were buried along with their masters in their graves; people lived in pits and used tools made of polished stones as well as bones.
• Gufkral (Kashmir) – This neolithic site is famous for pit dwelling, stone tools and graveyards in houses.
• Chirand (Bihar) – The neolithic men used tools and weapons made of bones.
• Piklihal, Brahmagiri, Maski, Takkalakota, Hallur (Karnataka) – The people were cattle herders. They domesticated sheep and goats. Ash mounds have been found.
• Belan Valley (which is located on the northern spurs of the Vindhyas and middle part of Narmada valley) – All three phases i.e., paleolithic, mesolithic, and neolithic ages are found in the sequence.
• Neolithic tools are also found in the Garo hills in Meghalaya on the northeastern frontiers of India.
• Neolithic celts, axes, adzes, chisels, etc., have also been found in the Orissa and Chotanagpur hill areas.

Metal Age

The metal age marks the end of the stone age. Metal age is broadly categorized into two ages and they are as follows

1. Bronze Age 

Bronze itself is harder and more durable than other metals available at the time, allowing bronze age civilizations to gain a technological advantage. This age was the first witness in Egypt. Most commonly metals in this period were copper and bronze.

2. Iron Age

In the 19th century, the use of iron increased and hence rise of Iron Age. This age is the last age of the ” 3 Age System”. This age brought an end to the bronze age. Weapons were also made of iron in this era.

REVISION NOTES: Indus Valley Civilization 2nd Part

Lothal

The word Lothal, like Mohenjo-daro, means the mound of the dead. Lothal is located between the Bhogavo and Sabarmati rivers near the Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat.

• This is situated on the bank of Bhogavar.
• Only at Lothal and Rangpur, rice husks have been found.

The Excavated Site at Lothal

• The use of weights and measures proves that they knew arithmetic as well which is shown by a scale found at Lothal.
• On the eastern side is located a dockyard and wharf loading platform.
• A doubtful terracotta figurine of a horse is found here.
• The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan, and Mohenjodaro.
• The pre-Harappan settlement has been found at:
  (i) Kot Diji
  (ii) Kalibangan
  (iii) Harappa.
• Four outposts of the Harappan Civilisation are Manda in the north, Damimabad in the South, Hulas, and Alamgirpur in the east, and Suktagendor in the west.
• The Harappan Civilisation roughly extended over an area of 1.3 million sq. km.
• The spread of the Harappan Civilisation is coterminous with the wheat-producing zone.
• Feature of the coastal towns of the Harappan Civilisation:
  (i) To exploit locally available raw materials (shell, minerals, etc.);
  (ii) To act as ports for the Gulf region;
  (iii) To act as an entrepot of trade and commerce for the inland towns.
• Harappans had a highly skilled knowledge of metallurgy which is proved by the mixture of copper and tin in ideal proportion for bronze implements.
• The latest Harappan site discovered in Gujarat is Dholavira.
• The two most thickly populated cities of the Harappan civilization were Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
• Harappan ports:
  (i) Lothal
  (ii) Balakot
  (iii) and Suktagendor etc.
• Station of Harappan cattle breeders—Nadi.
• Wheeler pointed out some kind of military assault or mass execution of the Harappan people on the basis of skeletons found at Mohenjodaro.
• The Harappan fortifications were meant to
  (i) Defend the townships from strong attacks by enemies;
  (ii) Protect the town from floods;
  (iii) Serve as safety measures from robbers.
• Harappan people had the closest external contacts with Mesopotamia.
• The entry port for trade between the Indus trading centers and Mesapotomia was Bahrain.
• The script has not been deciphered so far, but overlaps of letters on some of the potsherds from Kalibangan show that writing was boustrophedon or from right to left and from left to right in alternative lines.
• The chief deity was the Mahadeva. In a seal, he is surrounded by four animals—elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo, and two deer at his feet.
• There was great progress in ceramic art, plastic art, and metal sculpture.
• The seals might be considered the first art objects in India.
• The icon in Indian art appears in Harappan culture for the first time on a famous seal from Mohenjodaro.

Try yourself:The latest Harappan site discovered in ________

a.Manda

b.Damimabad

c.Gujarat

d.Tamil Nadu

Imports

• Gold—From South India, Afghanistan, and Persia.
• Silver—Afghanistan, and Iran
• Copper—South India, Baluchistan, and Arabia.

Try yourself:The chief deity was the Mahadeva. In a seal, he is surrounded by four animals. Which one is not one of them?

• a.Tiger
  
• b.Cow
  
• c.Rhino
  
• d.Elephant

Types of Marriage in the Vedic Period

• Brahma: Marriage of a duly cowered girl to a man of the same class.
• Daiva: In this type of marriage, the father gives a daughter to a sacrificial priest as part of his fee.
• Arsa: In this type of marriage, a token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given in place of the dowry.
• Prajapati: The father gives the girl without dowry and without demanding the bride-price.
• Gandharva: Marriage by the consent of the two parties, which might be solemnized merely by plighting troth.
• Asura: Asura marriage, in which the bride was bought from her father, was looked upon with disfavor by all the sacred texts, though the Arthashastra allows it without criticism.
• Rakshasa: Rakshasa marriage, or marriage by capture, was practiced especially by warriors.
• Paishacha: It was the seduction of the girl while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk.
• Of these eight forms: The first four were generally approved and were permissible to Brahmans. The other forms were looked on with varying degrees of disfavours by the pious. Gandharva marriage, which often might amount to no more than a liaison, was surprisingly respected. A special form of the Gandharva marriage was the Swaymvar or “self-choice”.
  Prajapatya

• Lapis Lazuli—Badakshan
• Turquoise—Iran
• Amethyst—Maharastra
• Agate—Saurastra and Western India.
• Jade—Central Asia
• Cronch-Shells—Saurashtra and the Deccan.
• Three methods of disposing of the dead:
  (i) Complete burial.
  (ii) Burial after exposure of the body to birds and beasts.
  (iii) Cremation followed by burial of the ashes.

Try yourself:Marriage by the consent of the two parties, which might be solemnized merely by plighting troth is called ______.

• a.Gandharva
• b.Prajapati
• c.Asura
• d.Paishacha

Decline

• Aryan Invasion: Reference to the destruction of forts by Aryans in the Rig Veda.
• Geographical Occurences: Recurring floods e.g. Mohenjodaro and Chanhudaro, drying up of rivers e.g., Kalibangan and Bhansali.

Weaknesses of the Harappans

• Lack of plasticity of mind.
• Difficulty in obtaining raw materials particularly copper and tin.
• Limited use of scripts as compared to the Sumerians.

Gradual Process of Decline

• The decline of trade, Precarious economic situation, Ineffective Harappan administration.

Facts To Be Remembered

• Wheat and barley were the earliest cereals grown by man.
• The growing of grains made possible the transition from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic age.
• The main occupation of the Paleolithic people was hunting and gathering food.
• The Indus Valley Civilization type was found in Sumer.
• The paintings of Ajanta depict stories of the Jatakas.
• Purushasukta is found in the Rigveda.
• Milindapanha is a religious conversation.
• The Uttaramerur inscription belongs to the period of Prantaka I.
• The first coins circulated in Bihar and U.P. in India.
• From the twelfth year of his reign, Ashoka began to issue edicts.
• The earliest evidence of the practice of sati can be gleaned from an inscription at Eran in M.P. dated 510 A.D.
• The neolithic period is known as the food-producing stage.
• Though the fire was discovered in the Palaeolithic age, its use for cooking was started in the Neolithic age.
• Allahabad Pillar Inscription is the Prasasti written by Harisena on Samudragupta.
• Strata Sutra deals with religious sacrifices.
• The emotional poetry of the Saiva saints of South India was called Tevram (also known as Dravida Veda).
• Ashoka introduced the institution of ‘dhamma-mahamatta’ in the major rock edict-V.
• The capital of Kanvas was at Pataliputra.
• Tamil is the oldest among the spoken literary languages of South India.
• In the Vedic age, widows could remarry.
• Maski's edict mentions the personal name of Ashoka.
• Jatakas are stories relating to the different births of Buddha.
• Matsya is identified with modern Jaipur and included Alwar and a part of Bharatpur.
• Asokan inscriptions may be considered the first written record in India.
• Bhagavad Gita was originally written in Sanskrit.
• Kautilya’s Arthashastra is compared to Machiavelli’s Prince.
• The most sacred book of the Buddhists is the Tripitaka.
• Pallavas created the Mahabalipuram, rock temples.
• The philosophy of Vishishtadvaita is associated with Ramanuja.
• Vedanta philosophy spread during the period of the Guptas.
• The most popular god of the Tamil people was Murugan.
• The chief impact of Vedic culture on Indian history was the consolidation of caste.
• The salient feature of the Rigvedic religion was the worship of the Mother Goddess.
• The major difference between varna and jati is that varna is only four but jati are many.
• The Brahmanas are books that deal with rituals.
• Sankaracharya founded four maths in four corners of India.
• The famous dialogue between Nachiketa and Yama is mentioned in the Kathopanishad.

REVISION NOTES: Indus Valley Civilization 1st Part

Indus Valley Civilization (also known as Harappan Civilization) was the first major civilization in South Asia, which spread across a vast area of land in present-day India and Pakistan (around 12 lakh sq. km).

• The time period of mature Indus Valley Civilization is estimated between BC. 2700- BC. 1900 i.e. for 800 years. But early Indus Valley Civilization had existed even before BC.2700.
• The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) is one of the world's four great civilizations. It thrived along the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra floodplains. 

Indus Valley Civilization is an essential topic for the IAS Exam – Prelims (Ancient History) and Mains (Ancient Civilization) (GS-I and Optional). Let's take a closer look at the Harappan Culture (Indus Valley Civilisation) to help you prepare for the next UPSC Exam.

What are Some Salient Features of Indus Valley Civilization?

• The Harappan Civilisation was mainly concentrated in Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• Two most important Harappan crops were Wheat and Barley.
• Three most common features of all Indus Valley sites are use of baked bricks and pottery, elaborate drainage system and occurrence of marsh or jungle animals.
• At Lothal, a brick dockyard connected to the Gulf of Cambay by a channel has been discovered.
• Terracotta figures and seals help us most to understand the religious and social life of the Indus Valley.
  Miniature Votive Images or Toy Models from Harappa, c. 2500 BCE - The Indus River Valley Civilization created figurines from terracotta, as well as bronze and steatite
• From the scattered skeletal remains of the Harappans found at different sites, the most appropriate conclusion to be drawn would be that there was some kind of military assault.
• One of the most plausible reasons, which made the Harappans move away from their urban settlements, was hydrological changes.
• The largest number of Harappan sites in post independence India have been discovered in Gujarat.
• The mature Harappan civilisation appears to have lasted for around five centuries.

The Great Bath at Mohenjodaro, a city in the Indus River Valley Civilization

Try yourself:Which of the following crops were important crops of harappa civilization?

• a.Wheat
• b.Rice
• c.Milet
• d.Bajar

In the Harappan Culture (Indus Valley Civilization) the purpose of the Great Bath in the citadel at Mohenjodaro was community bathing, Swimming exercises and water sports, and some elaborate ritual of vital importance, including a corporate social life. Almost all Harappan towns had large Granaries because taxes were paid in kind and therefore granaries acted as a sort of public treasuries, surplus produce of the countryside was stored in the towns, food-grains were stored for the purpose of trade.

• The use of lime and costly burnt bricks, instead of sundried bricks, by the Indus Valley people for construction purposes is a proof of a moist climate.
• The Harappan towns and cities were divided into Large rectangular blocks.
• From the following sites excavated recently three stages of Harappan occupation (pre-Harappan, Harappan, post-Harappan) been noticed—Rojaidi, Desalpur, Surkotda.
• Traces of sugar-cane has not been found in the Indus civilisation.
• On the basis of available evidence, the Harappan civilisation contributed two important things to mankind which were growing wheat and cotton.
• The metal most widely used by the Indus Valley people was Bronze.
• The common household utensils of the Harappan people were made of well-baked painted pottery.
• The tools and implements used by Indus Valley people were needles, razors, sickles, plough and grinding stones for flouring wheat, pestles and uerns.
• Try yourself:Which was the most used metal alloy in Harappan civilisation?
• a.Bronze
• b.Brass
• c.Rolled Gold
• d.Aluminium

In the Harappan Culture, people had a common Burial system, which is proved by the earth burials with the head of the dead normally laid towards the north, and the burial of commonly used items with the dead. The following features of modern Hinduism is derived from the Harappan culture,  cults are Shakti worship, Worship of Siva as Pashupati, Worship of Siva-linga in the form of conical and cylindrical stones. The features of the religious life of the Indus Civilisation are Pipal and acacia trees were regarded as celestial plants, the tree of life figures with great frequency on the seal, the people had faith in amulets and charms, which shows that they were afraid of demons.

• The cereal not known to have been grown by the Harappan people was Pulses.
• The site that played the role of Harappan trading station was Lothal.
• Rows of distinctive fire altars with the provision of ritual bathing have been found at Kalibangan.
• From a large number of seals discovered from almost all the Harappan sites, it appears that they were used for ritualistic, religious and commercial purposes.

Indus civilization - seals

Try yourself:Which of the following religion was followed by people at Harappan civilisation?

• a.Christianity
• b.Jew
• c.Islam
• d.Hinduism

• In the Harappan Culture, the animal engraved on most of the Harappan seals is the humped bull or unicorn.
• The Indian script which appears to be the closest to the Harappan script is Dravidian.
• In the Harappan buildings mostly burnt bricks were used, not stones because stone was not readily available.
• The most important item of import for the Harappans was Metals and Precious stones. 
  Try yourself:Which of the following place of Harappan Civilisation was a trade station?
• a.Lothal
• b.Kalibangan
• c.Mohenjodaro
• d.Ganweriwala

Proofs of maritime activities of the Indus Valley people are the discovery of a dockyard at Lothal, the discovery of a large number of articles which were not produced or found in the country, and Commercial links of the Harappans with the West Asian countries.

The docks and canal in the ancient city of Lothal, located in modern India: Archaeological evidence suggests that the Indus River Valley Civilization constructed boats and may have participated in an extensive maritime trade network.

• Copper, used most widely by the Harappans, was obtained from Baluchistan and Khetri mines.
• The most important industry of the Harappans at Lothal and Chanhudaro was bead-making.
• Features of internal trade of the Harappans:
  (a) Trade was multifaceted
  (b) It was operated on regional as well as inter-regional level
  (c) It had a guild system coupled with nomadic trade.
• Characteristic feature of the Harappan pottery:
  (a) Well-fired red ware
  (b) Painted black designs
  (c) Vegetal and geometric patterns

Similarities between Harappan culture and the other ancient civilisations of Sumer, Mesopotamia and Egypt are Organised city life, Potter’s wheel and Domestication of animals. The distinctive features of Harappan Culture are Rectangular town planning, Absence of canal irrigation, and the great Granaries of Mohenjodaro and Harappa.

• The Harappan people conducted brisk trade with Afghanistan, Mesopotamia, and Bahrain.
• Indication of close links between the Indus Valley and other contemporary West Asian civilisation:
  (a) Indus Valley seals have been found from Sumer, Elam and Mesopotamia
  (b) Trade between the Indus Valley and Sumer was carried on by land through Baluchistan and partly by sea
  (c) Literary and archaeological evidence of brisk trade between Harappan and Mesopotamian towns.

How were the Indus people different from the Rigvedic Aryans?

Aryans in India- An early 20th-century depiction of Aryan people settling in agricultural villages in India.(a) The ethnic type of the Aryans was different from the four ethnic types (Australoids, Mediterranean, Mongolian and Alpine) found at Mohenjodaro
(b) Whereas the Aryans lived a pastoral and agricultural life, the Indus people lived a highly organised city life
(c) The Vedic Aryans probably knew of iron and defensive armour which were totally absent in Harappan Culture.

• The Harappan site located near the Iranian border is Suktagendor.
• Ornaments of the Harappan people were made of Gold and Silver, Ivory and bone, and Copper and precious stones. 
• The greatest defect of the drainage system of the Indus Valley was that drains were located near the wells. 
• Weapons used by the Harappan people Arrows, Daggers & spears and mace-heads and missiles. The Religious beliefs of the Harappan people continue till this day worship of Pashupati, Peepal and Serpent worship.
  Try yourself:People during Indus valley civilization used to pray to Pashupati. Which Hindi God was called 'Pashupati'
• a.Lord Vishnu
• b.Lord Ganesha
• c.Lord Brahma
• d.Lord Shiva

What are the Specialties in Indus Valley Sites?

Mohenjodaro

• The most dramatic characteristic of the city is a commanding citadel.
• There lay in the citadel a ‘College’, a multipillar ‘Assembly Hall’ and the so-called ‘Great Bath’.
• Most of Mohenjodaro houses are built of kiln-fired brick.
• The major streets are 33 feet wide and run north-south intersecting subordinate ones, running east-west, at right angles.
• The evidence of Indian ships (figured on a seal) and a piece of woven cloth have been discovered from here.
• There is a large granary consisting of a podium of square blocks of burnt-bricks with a wooden superstructure.
• Parallel rows of two-roomed cottages were found. These cottages were perhaps used by the workmen or poor section of society.
• It is important to remember that Mohenjodaro shows nine levels of occupation towering over 300 feet above the present flood plain.
• Excavation reveals that the city was flooded more than seven times.

Harappa

• The most remarkable and the largest building at Harappa is the Great Granary measuring 169 ft x 35 ft.
• Between the granary and the citadel, have also been found a series of circular platforms, probably for the pounding of grain.
• At a lower level below the granary, platforms and the citadel were crowded single-celled dwellings which have suggested slave habitats.
• Two sandstone statuettes are found here in which human anatomy is depicted. The cemetery H culture is also found here.

Kalibangan

• Kalibangan is situated on the ancient Sarasvati, now called Ghaggar in Rajasthan.
• There is evidence of mud-brick fortification.
• The pre-Harappan phase here shows that the fields were ploughed, unlike the Harappan period.
• One of the platforms within the citadel had fire altars which contained ash.
• Another platform has a klinburnt brick-lined pit containing bones. These suggest the practice of the cult of sacrifice.
• The existence of wheel conveyance is proved by a cartwheel having a single hub.

Chanhudaro, Banwali And Surkotada

• Chanhudaro is situated eighty miles south of Mohenjodaro.
• The city was twice destroyed by inundations. Here more extensive but indirect evidence of the superimposition of barbarian life is seen. There was no citadel.
• Banwali is situated on the dried-up Sarasvati. Like those of Kalibangan, Amri, Kot Diji and Harappa, Banwali also saw two cultural phases: Pre-Harappan and Harappan.
• Here we find a large quantity of barely, sesamum and mustard.
• Surkotada is situated 270 km northwest of Ahmedabad in Gujarat.
• Here we find remains of a horse, a citadel and a lower town, both of which were fortified.
• Traces of rice cultivation have been found at Lothal and Rangpur.
• Traces of a horse have been found at Surkotada.
• A Yogi of the Harappan seals wearing a horned cap and surrounded by animals has been identified with Pashupati Shiva.
  The “Shiva Pashupati” seal: This seal was excavated in Mohenjodaro and depicts a seated, surrounded by animals.
  Try yourself:Citadel is found in which of these places of Indus Valley civilisation?
• a.Harappa
• b.Mohenjodaro
• c.Lothal
  
• d.Banwali

• Discovery of granaries at the Harappan sites does indicate:
  (a) Agricultural efficiency
  (b) Agricultural surplus
  (c) Knowledge of storage techniques
• Harappan settlements and the banks of rivers on which they were located:
  (a) Lothal—Bhogava
  (b) Kalibangan—Ghaggar
  (c) Rupar—Sutlej
  (d) Harappa—Ravi
  (e) Mohenjodaro—Indus
• Religious beliefs of the Harappan people:
  (a) Belief in evil spirits and life hereafter
  (b) Cults of fire and fertility
  (c) Adoration of trees and animals
• Unique contributions of the Harappan Civilisation:
  (a) Uniformity of weights and measures
  (b) Decimal system of measurement
  (c) First Known municipal system

 Kot Diji

• It is situated on the left bank of Indus river about 50 km east of Mohenjodaro.
• Excavated between 1955-57.
• Wheel-made painted pottery, traces of a defensive wall and well-aligned streets, knowledge of metallurgy, artistic toys etc.
• Five figurines of the Mother Goddess were also discovered.

Amri

• It is situated south of Mohenjodaro.
• Knowledge of metal working, use of wheeled pottery with animal figures painted on it, construction of rectangular houses, etc.

Balakot

• Situated near the middle of the Khurkera plain on the south-eastern side of the Las Bela Valley and Somani Bay, about 98 km north-west of Karachi.
• There is a wide east-west lane almost bisecting the area at right angles with two smaller lanes.
• Mud bricks were the standard building material although a few drains were lined with kiln-burnt bricks also.
• There is some evidence for the thin plastering of floors but it was not common.

Desalpur

• Situated near Gunthali in Nakhatrana taluka of Bhuj district (Gujarat) on the Bahadar river.
• It was a fortified township built of dressed stones with mud filling inside.
• The houses were constructed just against fortification wall. In the centre was found a building having massive walls.

Ropar

• Situated on the bank of Sutlej, some 25 km east of Bara.
• The excavations have yielded five-fold sequences of cultures—Harappan, PGW, NBP, Kushana-Gupta and Medieval.
• Discovery of pottery related to the Kalibangan-I.
• The evidence of burying a dog below the human burial is very interesting.
• One example of a rectangular mudbrick chamber was noticed.

Dholavira

• It is a modest village in the Bhachau taluka of district Kutch in Gujarat.
• It is the latest and one of the two largest Harappan settlements in India, the other being Rakhigarhi in Haryana.
• The mounds of Dholavira were first explored by Dr J.J. Joshi.
• The other Harappan towns were divided into two parts—‘Citadel’ and ‘the Lower Town’, but Dholavira was divided into three principal divisions, two of which were strongly protected by rectangular fortifications. No other site has such elaborate structure.
• In 1990-91 a team of archaeologists led by Dr R.S. Bisht of the ASI conducted extensive excavations.

FAQs related to Indus Valley Civilization for UPSC

Q.1. Who is the God of Indus Valley civilization?

There are many seals to support the evidence of the Indus Valley Gods. Some seals show animals which resemble the two gods, Shiva and Rudra. Other seals depict a tree which the Indus Valley believed to be the tree of life.

Q.2. Which metal was unknown to Indus Valley civilization?

Iron was not know to Indus Valley Civilization people. The first evidence of Iron is found about 1000 B.C. from Ataranjikhera in Etah district.

Q.3. What was the main occupation of Indus Valley civilization?

The main occupation of the people of the Indus Valley Civilization was Agriculture. Main Crops: Wheat, Barley, Rice, Dates, Mustard, and Cotton.

Q.4. How many symbols were used in Indus Valley Civilization?

In the early 1970s, Iravatham Mahadevan published a corpus and concordance of Indus inscriptions listing 3,700 seals and 417 distinct signs in specific patterns. He also found that the average inscription contained five symbols and that the longest inscription contained only 26 symbols.

Q.5. Why is the Harappan Culture called the Indus Valley?

The Indus Valley Civilisation is named after the Indus river system in whose alluvial plains the early sites of the civilisation were identified and excavated.

GS1 PYQS(UPSC MAINS ANSWER WRITING): Indus Valley Civilization

The ancient civilization in Indian sub-continent differed from those of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Greece in that its culture and traditions have been preserved without a breakdown to the present day. Comment (UPSC GS1 2015)

Many great cultures had developed in different countries and regions of the world. Many of them have perished or have been replaced by other cultures.

• However Indian culture has had an enduring character. Despite major changes and upheavals significant threads of continuity can be traced throughout the course of Indian history right upto the present day. 
• Some aspects of Harappan culture are still practised, such as, the worshipping of Mother Goddess and Pashupati. Similarly, Vedic, Buddhist, Jain and many other traditions continue to be followed even today. Hence the continuity and change in our civilization has gone hand in hand. In fact, a remarkable feature of Indian culture is that along with continuity it has kept on changing, whereas the basic spirit of our culture continued. It has kept on discarding what was becoming irrelevant in the modern age. 
• As a result, movements have grown and reforms brought about. The reform movements in the Vedic religion brought about by Jainism and Buddhism in sixth century BC and the religious and social awakening in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in modern India are a few examples when revolutionary changes were brought about in Indian thought and practices. Yet the thread of basic philosophy of Indian culture continued and still persists. 
• Further all these civilizations except of India had institutional slavery, whereas India lacked any such exploitative system at large scale. Though, it had social outcasts and untouchables, but even their status was much better than slaves elsewhere. This, institution also became the reason for downfall for the great civilizations like Egypt and Mesopotamia. 
• Thus, due to all these features Indian civilization continued without break.

To what extent has the urban planning and culture of the Indus Valley Civilization provided inputs to the present day urbanization? Discuss. (UPSC GS1 2014)

• The Indus Valley Civilization displayed remarkable planning in its urban towns, especially in the area of sanitation and drainage. To a great extent, it has provided inputs to the present day urbanization. 
• One of the major challenges of urban planning, in India, has been dealing with the haphazard construction of buildings. In the IVC, the streets were built on grid-like patterns, which allowed for methodical and planned growth. 
• In modern times, Le Corbusier’s plans for Chandigarh provided for a rectangular shape with grid iron pattern, which enabled fast movement of traffic and reduced the area. In the IVC, the town was also demarcated clearly between residential areas and common/public areas. 
• The granaries of IVC are also an example of intelligent design, with their strategically placed air ducts and the platforms being divided into units. The houses in the IVC were constructed in such a manner that it didn’t disturb the layout of the roads in any way. 
• The houses had doors that opened out into the lanes instead of the roads. The warehouse in Lothal is an exemplary instance of designing with precision. The drains in the IVC connected each and every house, and enabled them to dump their waste directly. 
• These drains were covered, and they directly connected to the larger sewerage outlets. There were inspection holes on the drains for maintenance purposes and there were manholes on the streets. Thus, urban planning of the IVC has extensively helped us to learn from it.

UPSC PRELIMS PYQS: Indus Valley Civilization

Q.1. Which one of the following ancient towns is well-known for its elaborate system of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channelizing water into connected reservoirs?     (2021)
(a)  Dholavira
(b) Kalibangan
(c) Rakhigarhi
(d) Ropar

Correct Answer is Option (a)

• Dholavira was known for the Water Management
• Surrounded by 2 channels, the natives had built dam, reservoir, step well and canal for effective water management

Q.2. Which one of the following is not a Harappan Site? (2019-I) 
(a) Chanhudaro 
(b) Kot Diji 
(c) Sohagaura 
(d) Desalpur

Correct Answer is Option (c)
Sohgaura Copper Plate: The earliest known copper plate, known as the Sohgaura copper plate, is a Mauryan record that mentions famine relief efforts. So it can't be a Harappan site, the answer is c.

Q.3. Which of the following characterizes/characterize the people of Indus Civilization? (2013 - I) 

1. They possessed great palaces and temples. 
2. They worshipped both male and female deities. 
3. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare. 

Select the correct statement/statements using the codes given below. 
(a) 1 and 2 only 
(b) 2 only 
(c) 1, 2 and 3 
(d) None of the statements given above is correct

Correct Answer is Option (b)
Indus Valley people did not possess great palaces and temples rather the civilization was noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multistoried houses. Indus valley people were peace-loving. They were never engaged in any war. However, speculations have been rife that some tectonic forces destroyed the civilization. Some historians are of the view that invasion of Aryans, sea-level changes, earthquakes might have brought the civilization to its end therefore people employing horse-drawn chariots in warfare is not true. Moreover, Indus valley seals show swastikas, animals which are suggestive of their religious beliefs. In view of a large number of figurines found in the Indus valley, some scholars believe they worshipped the mother goddess symbolizing fertility. They worshipped a father God who might be a progenitor of the race and was probably a prototype of Siva as the Lord of the Animals.

Q.4. Regarding the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements: (2011 - I)

1. It was predominantly a secular civilization and the religious element, though present, did not dominate the scene 
2. During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles in India  

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 
(a) 1 only 
(b) 2 only 
(c) Both 1 and 2 
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Correct Answer is Option (c)
We have read about the Mehrgarh cotton which is the earliest example of Cotton cultivation in the old world, older than the Peruvians. The cloth was made, and even dyed, so statement 2 is correct. The first statement is also correct and has been “lifted” from a famous history book.

Q.5. Match List-I (Ancient site) with List-II (Archaeological finding) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:  (2002)

(a) A – 1; B – 2; C – 3; D – 4
(b) A – 2; B – 1; C – 4; D – 3
(c) A – 1; B – 2; C – 4; D – 3
(d) A – 2; B – 1; C – 3; D – 4

Correct Answer is Option (b)

 

Q.6. Which one of the following animals has not represented seals and terracotta art of the Harappan culture?    (2001)
(a) Cow
(b) Elephant
(c) Rhinoceros
(d) Tiger

Correct Answer is Option (a)
Cow, camel, horse, and lion were not depicted on seals. Unicorn (bull) was the animal most commonly represented on the seals.

Q.7. What is the correct chronological order in which the following appeared in India? (1998) 

1. Gold coins 
2. Punch marked silver coins 
3. Iron plough 
4. Urban culture 

Select the correct answer using the codes given below: 
(a) 3, 4, 1, 2 
(b) 3, 4, 2, 1 
(c) 4, 3, 1, 2 
(d) 4, 3, 2, 1

Correct Answer is Option (d)
In India Indus Valley Civilization appeared the first signs of urbanization between 2500 and 2000 BCE. According to researchers, it is a hard fact that the earliest known specimen of iron ploughshare comes from Ganwaria in District Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh and dates from ca. 700 BC. The first documented coinage is deemed to start with 'Punch Marked' coins issued between the 7th-6th century BC and 1stcentury AD. It was the Indo Greeks who ruled a large part of NorthWestern India around 200 BC (2218 years ago) that first introduced coins made of Pure Gold in India before Kushans. Therefore, according to the question the correct chronological order of the event that appeared in India is 4, 3, 2 and 1.

TOWN PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE: Indus Valley Civilization

Town Planning

Town planning is the most striking feature of Indus valley civilization. Their town planning proves that they lived a highly civilized and developed life. Indus people were among the first to build planned cities with scientific drainage system. The Indus cities were built on a uniform plan.

• The town planning is based on the division of the towns into 2 main parts -citadel/acropolis and lower town.
• Citadel is a smaller but higher portion built on an upraised platform with walls fortifying it from all sides. This was used for buildings of large dimensions such as granaries, administrative buildings, pillared halls and courtyard. Some of the buildings in citadels might have been the residence of the rulers and aristocrats. Chanduhara is the only city which doesn’t have citadel.

• The lower town was of much larger area than the citadel. Like the citadel it was walled to a certain extent perhaps to keep the floods away. The lower part of the city might have been used as quarters by working class people.
• The main streets of the cities at both Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were generally oriented from north to south, with connecting streets running east to west.
• The streets appear to have never been encroached upon by the adjoining houses.
• Some of the stairs present in the building indicate that they might have been double storey.
• The use of burnt bricks in the Harappan cities is remarkable, because in the contemporary buildings of Egypt mainly dried bricks were used.

• In almost all cities every big or small house had its own courtyard and bathroom.
• In Kalibangan many houses had their wells. At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), the entire settlement was fortified, and sections within the town were also separated by walls.

Try yourself:Consider the following statements regarding the planning of streets of Harappan towns:
I. The towns were well planned and the streets cut each other on the sixty degree angles.
II. The connecting streets were oriented in the east-west direction.
III. The civic sense of people in this civilization was such that during the height of the civilization, no encroachment on the streets was to be seen.
Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?

• a.Only I
• b.I and II
• c.II and III
• d.All of the above

Try yourself:Which of the following is the most striking Character of the Indus Valley Civilization?

• a.Economy
• b.Religious life
• c.System of town planning
• d.Social life

Drainage Systems

• Each house had its own private drinking well and bathroom which was well connected with drains. The water from these bathrooms ran through clay pipes into underground drains which ran into the main drain. 

• These main drains were made up of bricks set in mortar and had large cross-section to accommodate even a large water flow. The drains were mostly covered and hidden underground. They were covered by a layer of baked bricks which was laid flat across the side walls of the drain.
• Wider drains were covered with limestone blocks. These were then covered with a layer of mud.
• Small settling pools and traps were built into the system of drainage to allow sediment and other material to collect while the water and smaller particles flowed away. These would be cleaned out periodically.
• Wider drains were covered with extra-long bricks, and for culverts, such as that at the Great Bath, a corbelled arch was used.

The above features is indicative of the following: 

(i) Advancement in Municipal system

(ii) Importance attached to social and personal hygiene

(iii) Proper town planning and

(iv) Good knowledge of brick mortar construction.

The Great Bath

The Great Bath is one of the well-known structures among the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Sindh, Pakistan. It was built in the 3rd millennium BCE soon after the building of the Citadel.

• It is widely regarded as the "earliest public water tank of the ancient world".
• It measures 11.88 × 7.01 metres, and has a maximum depth of 2.43 metres.

• Two wide staircases, one from the north and one from the south, served as the entry to the structure. A one metre wide and 40 centimetres high mound is present at the ends of these stairs. A hole was also found at one end of the Bath which might have been used to drain the water into it. The bath also had an array of galleries and rooms surrounding it.

• Such public baths were found in almost every large IVC settlement.

• It indicates the importance of ritualistic cleaning in their culture.

Try yourself:Which of the following is used in the floor of the Great Bath, besides burnt bricks and mortar?

• a.Terracota
• b.Gypsum
  
• c.Stone
  
• d.Steatite

Try yourself:Consider the following statements regarding the drainage system of Indus Valley towns:

I. The drainage system of the Indus Valley Civilization indicates that people had NO civic sense of sanitation and care for health and hygiene.
II. Small drains were connected to bathrooms of private houses which then joined the main drains in the side streets.
III. The larger sewers in the main streets were covered drains were covered by stone slabs.

• a.Only I
• b.I and II
• c.II and III
• d.All of the above

The Granary

The Great Granary is found in Harappa. It is a brick structure that was built on a massive brick foundation over 45 meters north south and 45 meters east-west.

• Two rows of six rooms that appear to be foundations are arranged along a central passageway that is about 7 meters wide and partly paved with baked bricks. 
• Each room measures 15.2 by 6.1 meters and has three sleeper walls with air space between them.
• A wooden superstructure supported in some places by large columns would have been built on top of the brick foundation, with stairs leading up from the central passage area.
• Small triangular opening may have served as air ducts to allow the flow of fresh air beneath the hollow floors.

House Planning

The domestic house planning and architecture is well evident from the lower town of the Mohenjo-Daro. The streets along with an efficient drainage system seems to have been constructed first and the houses built around them were constructed later indicating the existence of advanced town-planning. 

• The Harappans used burnt mud bricks of standardized dimension for the purpose of construction. Many layers of well-baked bricks were laid out and then joined together using gypsum mortar. The bricks were of standard size and ratio (4:2:1) and similar standardized bricks were employed in all settlements in this culture. 
• Each of the houses is built around a courtyard with rooms built around it. The courtyard could be the centre of household activities. Each house had a separate bathroom with a well the discharge of which would run in the system of drains.

Try yourself:The remarkable thing about the arrangement of the houses in the cities is that they followed the following system:

• a.On a chess-board pattern
• b.In the shape of a circle
• c.In a grid system
• d.In the shape of a triangle

Try yourself:Consider the following statements regarding IVC;
I. All houses in IVC cities had 2 rooms only.
II. Lime and Jaggery was used to join bricks for the construction of IVC houses.
III. There was no uniform standard for the bricks used.
Choose the correct answer:

• a.I and III
• b.I and II
• c.I, II and III
• d.None of the above.