The word Lothal, like Mohenjo-daro, means the mound of the dead. Lothal is located between the Bhogavo and Sabarmati rivers near the Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat.
This is situated on the bank of Bhogavar.
Only at Lothal and Rangpur, rice husks have been found.
The Excavated Site at Lothal
The use of weights and measures proves that they knew arithmetic as well which is shown by a scale found at Lothal.
On the eastern side is located a dockyard and wharf loading platform.
A doubtful terracotta figurine of a horse is found here.
The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan, and Mohenjodaro.
The pre-Harappan settlement has been found at: (i) Kot Diji (ii) Kalibangan (iii) Harappa.
Four outposts of the Harappan Civilisation are Manda in the north, Damimabad in the South, Hulas, and Alamgirpur in the east, and Suktagendor in the west.
The Harappan Civilisation roughly extended over an area of 1.3 million sq. km.
The spread of the Harappan Civilisation is coterminous with the wheat-producing zone.
Feature of the coastal towns of the Harappan Civilisation: (i) To exploit locally available raw materials (shell, minerals, etc.); (ii) To act as ports for the Gulf region; (iii) To act as an entrepot of trade and commerce for the inland towns.
Harappans had a highly skilled knowledge of metallurgy which is proved by the mixture of copper and tin in ideal proportion for bronze implements.
The latest Harappan site discovered in Gujarat is Dholavira.
The two most thickly populated cities of the Harappan civilization were Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
Harappan ports: (i) Lothal (ii) Balakot (iii) and Suktagendor etc.
Station of Harappan cattle breeders—Nadi.
Wheeler pointed out some kind of military assault or mass execution of the Harappan people on the basis of skeletons found at Mohenjodaro.
The Harappan fortifications were meant to (i) Defend the townships from strong attacks by enemies; (ii) Protect the town from floods; (iii) Serve as safety measures from robbers.
Harappan people had the closest external contacts with Mesopotamia.
The entry port for trade between the Indus trading centers and Mesapotomia was Bahrain.
The script has not been deciphered so far, but overlaps of letters on some of the potsherds from Kalibangan show that writing was boustrophedon or from right to left and from left to right in alternative lines.
The chief deity was the Mahadeva. In a seal, he is surrounded by four animals—elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo, and two deer at his feet.
There was great progress in ceramic art, plastic art, and metal sculpture.
The seals might be considered the first art objects in India.
The icon in Indian art appears in Harappan culture for the first time on a famous seal from Mohenjodaro.
Try yourself:The latest Harappan site discovered in ________
a.Manda
b.Damimabad
c.Gujarat
d.Tamil Nadu
Imports
Gold—From South India, Afghanistan, and Persia.
Silver—Afghanistan, and Iran
Copper—South India, Baluchistan, and Arabia.
Try yourself:The chief deity was the Mahadeva. In a seal, he is surrounded by four animals. Which one is not one of them?
Elephant
Types of Marriage in the Vedic Period
Brahma: Marriage of a duly cowered girl to a man of the same class.
Daiva: In this type of marriage, the father gives a daughter to a sacrificial priest as part of his fee.
Arsa: In this type of marriage, a token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given in place of the dowry.
Prajapati: The father gives the girl without dowry and without demanding the bride-price.
Gandharva: Marriage by the consent of the two parties, which might be solemnized merely by plighting troth.
Asura: Asura marriage, in which the bride was bought from her father, was looked upon with disfavor by all the sacred texts, though the Arthashastra allows it without criticism.
Rakshasa: Rakshasa marriage, or marriage by capture, was practiced especially by warriors.
Paishacha: It was the seduction of the girl while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk.
Of these eight forms: The first four were generally approved and were permissible to Brahmans. The other forms were looked on with varying degrees of disfavours by the pious. Gandharva marriage, which often might amount to no more than a liaison, was surprisingly respected. A special form of the Gandharva marriage was the Swaymvar or “self-choice”.
Prajapatya
Lapis Lazuli—Badakshan
Turquoise—Iran
Amethyst—Maharastra
Agate—Saurastra and Western India.
Jade—Central Asia
Cronch-Shells—Saurashtra and the Deccan.
Three methods of disposing of the dead: (i) Complete burial. (ii) Burial after exposure of the body to birds and beasts. (iii) Cremation followed by burial of the ashes.
Try yourself:Marriage by the consent of the two parties, which might be solemnized merely by plighting troth is called ______.
Gandharva
Prajapati
Asura
Paishacha
Decline
Aryan Invasion: Reference to the destruction of forts by Aryans in the Rig Veda.
Geographical Occurences: Recurring floods e.g. Mohenjodaro and Chanhudaro, drying up of rivers e.g., Kalibangan and Bhansali.
Weaknesses of the Harappans
Lack of plasticity of mind.
Difficulty in obtaining raw materials particularly copper and tin.
Limited use of scripts as compared to the Sumerians.
Gradual Process of Decline
The decline of trade, Precarious economic situation, Ineffective Harappan administration.
Facts To Be Remembered
Wheat and barley were the earliest cereals grown by man.
The growing of grains made possible the transition from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic age.
The main occupation of the Paleolithic people was hunting and gathering food.
The Indus Valley Civilization type was found in Sumer.
The paintings of Ajanta depict stories of the Jatakas.
Purushasukta is found in the Rigveda.
Milindapanha is a religious conversation.
The Uttaramerur inscription belongs to the period of Prantaka I.
The first coins circulated in Bihar and U.P. in India.
From the twelfth year of his reign, Ashoka began to issue edicts.
The earliest evidence of the practice of sati can be gleaned from an inscription at Eran in M.P. dated 510 A.D.
The neolithic period is known as the food-producing stage.
Though the fire was discovered in the Palaeolithic age, its use for cooking was started in the Neolithic age.
Allahabad Pillar Inscription is the Prasasti written by Harisena on Samudragupta.
Strata Sutra deals with religious sacrifices.
The emotional poetry of the Saiva saints of South India was called Tevram (also known as Dravida Veda).
Ashoka introduced the institution of ‘dhamma-mahamatta’ in the major rock edict-V.
The capital of Kanvas was at Pataliputra.
Tamil is the oldest among the spoken literary languages of South India.
In the Vedic age, widows could remarry.
Maski's edict mentions the personal name of Ashoka.
Jatakas are stories relating to the different births of Buddha.
Matsya is identified with modern Jaipur and included Alwar and a part of Bharatpur.
Asokan inscriptions may be considered the first written record in India.
Bhagavad Gita was originally written in Sanskrit.
Kautilya’s Arthashastra is compared to Machiavelli’s Prince.
The most sacred book of the Buddhists is the Tripitaka.
Pallavas created the Mahabalipuram, rock temples.
The philosophy of Vishishtadvaita is associated with Ramanuja.
Vedanta philosophy spread during the period of the Guptas.
The most popular god of the Tamil people was Murugan.
The chief impact of Vedic culture on Indian history was the consolidation of caste.
The salient feature of the Rigvedic religion was the worship of the Mother Goddess.
The major difference between varna and jati is that varna is only four but jati are many.
The Brahmanas are books that deal with rituals.
Sankaracharya founded four maths in four corners of India.
The famous dialogue between Nachiketa and Yama is mentioned in the Kathopanishad.
Indus Valley Civilization (also known as Harappan Civilization) was the first major civilization in South Asia, which spread across a vast area of land in present-day India and Pakistan (around 12 lakh sq. km).
The time period of mature Indus Valley Civilization is estimated between BC. 2700- BC. 1900 i.e. for 800 years. But early Indus Valley Civilization had existed even before BC.2700.
The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) is one of the world's four great civilizations. It thrived along the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra floodplains.
Indus Valley Civilization is an essential topic for the IAS Exam – Prelims (Ancient History) and Mains (Ancient Civilization) (GS-I and Optional). Let's take a closer look at the Harappan Culture (Indus Valley Civilisation) to help you prepare for the next UPSC Exam.
What are Some Salient Features of Indus Valley Civilization?
The Harappan Civilisation was mainly concentrated in Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Two most important Harappan crops were Wheat and Barley.
Three most common features of all Indus Valley sites are use of baked bricks and pottery, elaborate drainage system and occurrence of marsh or jungle animals.
At Lothal, a brick dockyard connected to the Gulf of Cambay by a channel has been discovered.
Terracottafigures and seals help us most to understand the religious and social life of the Indus Valley.
Miniature Votive Images or Toy Models from Harappa, c. 2500 BCE - The Indus River Valley Civilization created figurines from terracotta, as well as bronze and steatite
From the scattered skeletal remains of the Harappans found at different sites, the most appropriate conclusion to be drawn would be that there was some kind of military assault.
One of the most plausible reasons, which made the Harappans move away from their urban settlements, was hydrological changes.
The largest number of Harappan sites in post independence India have been discovered in Gujarat.
The mature Harappan civilisation appears to have lasted for around five centuries.
The Great Bath at Mohenjodaro, a city in the Indus River Valley Civilization
Try yourself:Which of the following crops were important crops of harappa civilization?
Wheat
Rice
Milet
Bajar
In the Harappan Culture (Indus Valley Civilization) the purpose of the Great Bath in the citadel at Mohenjodaro was community bathing, Swimming exercises and water sports, and some elaborate ritual of vital importance, including a corporate social life. Almost all Harappan towns had large Granaries because taxes were paid in kind and therefore granaries acted as a sort of public treasuries, surplus produce of the countryside was stored in the towns, food-grains were stored for the purpose of trade.
The use of lime and costly burnt bricks, instead of sundried bricks, by the Indus Valley people for construction purposes is a proof of a moist climate.
The Harappan towns and cities were divided into Large rectangular blocks.
From the following sites excavated recently three stages of Harappan occupation (pre-Harappan, Harappan, post-Harappan) been noticed—Rojaidi, Desalpur, Surkotda.
Traces of sugar-cane has not been found in the Indus civilisation.
On the basis of available evidence, the Harappan civilisation contributed two important things to mankind which were growing wheat and cotton.
The metal most widely used by the Indus Valley people was Bronze.
The common household utensils of the Harappan people were made of well-baked painted pottery.
The tools and implements used by Indus Valley people were needles, razors, sickles, plough and grinding stones for flouring wheat, pestles and uerns.
Try yourself:Which was the most used metal alloy in Harappan civilisation?
a.Bronze
b.Brass
c.Rolled Gold
d.Aluminium
In the Harappan Culture, people had a common Burial system, which is proved by the earth burials with the head of the dead normally laid towards the north, and the burial of commonly used items with the dead. The following features of modern Hinduism is derived from the Harappan culture, cults are Shakti worship, Worship of Siva as Pashupati, Worship of Siva-linga in the form of conical and cylindrical stones. The features of the religious life of the Indus Civilisation are Pipal and acacia trees were regarded as celestial plants, the tree of life figures with great frequency on the seal, the people had faith in amulets and charms, which shows that they were afraid of demons.
The cereal not known to have been grown by the Harappan people was Pulses.
The site that played the role of Harappan trading station was Lothal.
Rows of distinctive fire altars with the provision of ritual bathing have been found at Kalibangan.
From a large number of seals discovered from almost all the Harappan sites, it appears that they were used for ritualistic, religious and commercial purposes.
Indus civilization - seals
Try yourself:Which of the following religion was followed by people at Harappan civilisation?
Christianity
Jew
Islam
Hinduism
In the Harappan Culture, the animal engraved on most of the Harappan seals is the humped bull or unicorn.
The Indian script which appears to be the closest to the Harappan script is Dravidian.
In the Harappan buildings mostly burnt bricks were used, not stones because stone was not readily available.
The most important item of import for the Harappans was Metals and Precious stones. Try yourself:Which of the following place of Harappan Civilisation was a trade station?
Lothal
Kalibangan
Mohenjodaro
Ganweriwala
Proofs of maritime activities of the Indus Valley people are the discovery of a dockyard at Lothal, the discovery of a large number of articles which were not produced or found in the country, and Commercial links of the Harappans with the West Asian countries.
The docks and canal in the ancient city of Lothal, located in modern India: Archaeological evidence suggests that the Indus River Valley Civilization constructed boats and may have participated in an extensive maritime trade network.
Copper, used most widely by the Harappans, was obtained from Baluchistan and Khetri mines.
The most important industry of the Harappans at Lothal and Chanhudaro was bead-making.
Features of internal trade of the Harappans: (a) Trade was multifaceted (b) It was operated on regional as well as inter-regional level (c) It had a guild system coupled with nomadic trade.
Characteristic feature of the Harappan pottery: (a) Well-fired red ware (b) Painted black designs (c) Vegetal and geometric patterns
Similarities between Harappan culture and the other ancient civilisations of Sumer, Mesopotamia and Egypt are Organised city life, Potter’s wheel and Domestication of animals. The distinctive features of Harappan Culture are Rectangular town planning, Absence of canal irrigation, and the great Granaries of Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
The Harappan people conducted brisk trade with Afghanistan, Mesopotamia, and Bahrain.
Indication of close links between the Indus Valley and other contemporary West Asian civilisation: (a) Indus Valley seals have been found from Sumer, Elam and Mesopotamia (b) Trade between the Indus Valley and Sumer was carried on by land through Baluchistan and partly by sea (c) Literary and archaeological evidence of brisk trade between Harappan and Mesopotamian towns.
How were the Indus people different from the Rigvedic Aryans?
Aryans in India- An early 20th-century depiction of Aryan people settling in agricultural villages in India.(a) The ethnic type of the Aryans was different from the four ethnic types (Australoids, Mediterranean, Mongolian and Alpine) found at Mohenjodaro (b) Whereas the Aryans lived a pastoral and agricultural life, the Indus people lived a highly organised city life (c) The Vedic Aryans probably knew of iron and defensive armour which were totally absent in Harappan Culture.
The Harappan site located near the Iranian border is Suktagendor.
Ornaments of the Harappan people were made ofGold and Silver, Ivory and bone, and Copper and precious stones.
The greatest defect of the drainage system of the Indus Valley was that drains were located near the wells.
Weapons used by the Harappan people Arrows, Daggers & spears and mace-heads and missiles. The Religious beliefs of the Harappan people continue till this dayworship of Pashupati, Peepal and Serpent worship. Try yourself:People during Indus valley civilization used to pray to Pashupati. Which Hindi God was called 'Pashupati'
Lord Vishnu
b.Lord Ganesha
c.Lord Brahma
Lord Shiva
What are the Specialties in Indus Valley Sites?
Mohenjodaro
The most dramatic characteristic of the city is a commanding citadel.
There lay in the citadel a ‘College’, a multipillar ‘Assembly Hall’ and the so-called ‘Great Bath’.
Most of Mohenjodaro houses are built of kiln-fired brick.
The major streets are 33 feet wide and run north-south intersecting subordinate ones, running east-west, at right angles.
The evidence of Indian ships (figured on a seal) and a piece of woven cloth have been discovered from here.
There is a large granary consisting of a podium of square blocks of burnt-bricks with a wooden superstructure.
Parallel rows of two-roomed cottages were found. These cottages were perhaps used by the workmen or poor section of society.
It is important to remember that Mohenjodaro shows nine levels of occupation towering over 300 feet above the present flood plain.
Excavation reveals that the city was flooded more than seven times.
Harappa
The most remarkable and the largest building at Harappa is the Great Granary measuring 169 ft x 35 ft.
Between the granary and the citadel, have also been found a series of circular platforms, probably for the pounding of grain.
At a lower level below the granary, platforms and the citadel were crowded single-celled dwellings which have suggested slave habitats.
Two sandstone statuettes are found here in which human anatomy is depicted. The cemetery H culture is also found here.
Kalibangan
Kalibangan is situated on the ancient Sarasvati, now called Ghaggar in Rajasthan.
There is evidence of mud-brick fortification.
The pre-Harappan phase here shows that the fields were ploughed, unlike the Harappan period.
One of the platforms within the citadel had fire altars which contained ash.
Another platform has a klinburnt brick-lined pit containing bones. These suggest the practice of the cult of sacrifice.
The existence of wheel conveyance is proved by a cartwheel having a single hub.
Chanhudaro, Banwali And Surkotada
Chanhudaro is situated eighty miles south of Mohenjodaro.
The city was twice destroyed by inundations. Here more extensive but indirect evidence of the superimposition of barbarian life is seen. There was no citadel.
Banwali is situated on the dried-up Sarasvati. Like those of Kalibangan, Amri, Kot Diji and Harappa, Banwali also saw two cultural phases: Pre-Harappan and Harappan.
Here we find a large quantity of barely, sesamum and mustard.
Surkotada is situated 270 km northwest of Ahmedabad in Gujarat.
Here we find remains of a horse, a citadel and a lower town, both of which were fortified.
Traces of rice cultivation have been found at Lothal and Rangpur.
Traces of a horse have been found at Surkotada.
A Yogi of the Harappan seals wearing a horned cap and surrounded by animals has been identified with Pashupati Shiva.
The “Shiva Pashupati” seal: This seal was excavated in Mohenjodaro and depicts a seated, surrounded by animals.
Try yourself:Citadel is found in which of these places of Indus Valley civilisation?
a.Harappa
Mohenjodaro
Banwali
Discovery of granaries at the Harappan sites does indicate: (a) Agricultural efficiency (b) Agricultural surplus (c) Knowledge of storage techniques
Harappan settlements and the banks of rivers on which they were located: (a) Lothal—Bhogava (b) Kalibangan—Ghaggar (c) Rupar—Sutlej (d) Harappa—Ravi (e) Mohenjodaro—Indus
Religious beliefs of the Harappan people: (a) Belief in evil spirits and life hereafter (b) Cults of fire and fertility (c) Adoration of trees and animals
Unique contributions of the Harappan Civilisation: (a) Uniformity of weights and measures (b) Decimal system of measurement (c) First Known municipal system
Kot Diji
It is situated on the left bank of Indus river about 50 km east of Mohenjodaro.
Excavated between 1955-57.
Wheel-made painted pottery, traces of a defensive wall and well-aligned streets, knowledge of metallurgy, artistic toys etc.
Five figurines of the Mother Goddess were also discovered.
Amri
It is situated south of Mohenjodaro.
Knowledge of metal working, use of wheeled pottery with animal figures painted on it, construction of rectangular houses, etc.
Balakot
Situated near the middle of the Khurkera plain on the south-eastern side of the Las Bela Valley and Somani Bay, about 98 km north-west of Karachi.
There is a wide east-west lane almost bisecting the area at right angles with two smaller lanes.
Mud bricks were the standard building material although a few drains were lined with kiln-burnt bricks also.
There is some evidence for the thin plastering of floors but it was not common.
Desalpur
Situated near Gunthali in Nakhatrana taluka of Bhuj district (Gujarat) on the Bahadar river.
It was a fortified township built of dressed stones with mud filling inside.
The houses were constructed just against fortification wall. In the centre was found a building having massive walls.
Ropar
Situated on the bank of Sutlej, some 25 km east of Bara.
The excavations have yielded five-fold sequences of cultures—Harappan, PGW, NBP, Kushana-Gupta and Medieval.
Discovery of pottery related to the Kalibangan-I.
The evidence of burying a dog below the human burial is very interesting.
One example of a rectangular mudbrick chamber was noticed.
Dholavira
It is a modest village in the Bhachau taluka of district Kutch in Gujarat.
It is the latest and one of the two largest Harappan settlements in India, the other being Rakhigarhi in Haryana.
The mounds of Dholavira were first explored by Dr J.J. Joshi.
The other Harappan towns were divided into two parts—‘Citadel’ and ‘the Lower Town’, but Dholavira was divided into three principal divisions, two of which were strongly protected by rectangular fortifications. No other site has such elaborate structure.
In 1990-91 a team of archaeologists led by Dr R.S. Bisht of the ASI conducted extensive excavations.
FAQs related to Indus Valley Civilization for UPSC
Q.1. Who is the God of Indus Valley civilization?
There are many seals to support the evidence of the Indus Valley Gods. Some seals show animals which resemble the two gods, Shiva and Rudra. Other seals depict a tree which the Indus Valley believed to be the tree of life.
Q.2. Which metal was unknown to Indus Valley civilization?
Iron was not know to Indus Valley Civilization people. The first evidence of Iron is found about 1000 B.C. from Ataranjikhera in Etah district.
Q.3. What was the main occupation of Indus Valley civilization?
The main occupation of the people of the Indus Valley Civilization was Agriculture. Main Crops: Wheat, Barley, Rice, Dates, Mustard, and Cotton.
Q.4. How many symbols were used in Indus Valley Civilization?
In the early 1970s, Iravatham Mahadevan published a corpus and concordance of Indus inscriptions listing 3,700 seals and 417 distinct signs in specific patterns. He also found that the average inscription contained five symbols and that the longest inscription contained only 26 symbols.
Q.5. Why is the Harappan Culture called the Indus Valley?
The Indus Valley Civilisation is named after the Indus river system in whose alluvial plains the early sites of the civilisation were identified and excavated.
The Excavated Site at Lothal
Prajapatya
