INTRODUCTION, EXTENT AND POLITICAL HISTORY: THE SANGAM AGE

The Sangam Age

• From available evidence it can be said that there is a body of literature in Tamil which has had unbroken development over twenty centuries.
• The earliest known phase of this literature is usually designated the Sangam literature for the reason that the anthologies of odes, lyrics and idylls which form bulk of that literature, were composed at a time when the Pandyan kings of Madurai maintained in their court a body of eminent poets who in a sort of unofficial way functioned as a board of literary censors.
• Later poets and scholars like saint Navukharasar and the commentator on the Iraiyanar Ahapporul used the expression sangam to denote this association of scholars. 
  Sangam Period
• Though it is difficult to accept all the interesting but obviously legendary details about this Sangam given by later writer as authentic history, yet it would equally difficult to reject the fact of the existence of an institution like the Sangam.
• The preface to the Tolkappiyam speaks of the practice of learned treatise being critically examined by court poets. 
• A good part of the literature that was produced during the Sangam period has perished.
• Legendary and traditional accounts mention the loss of many texts on the occasion of ‘deluge’ which compelled the Pandyan kings to shift their capital first from Ten-Madurai to Kapatapuram and then from there to Madurai. 
• The currently extend body of sangam literature is but a fraction of vast literature.

Extent

• The Pandya country occupied the extreme  south and included the modern districts of Madurai, Ramnad and Tirunelveli. Its capital was Madurai (earlier Ten-Madurai and then Kapatapuram served as their capitals). Korkai was its main seaport. Saliyur was another seaport.
• The Chola country comprised the lower Kaveri Valley. It roughly corresponded to modern Tanjore and Tiruchirapalli districts; its inland capital was Uraiyur later Puhar.
• The Chera or Kerala kingdom was the western coastal strip above the northern limit of the Pandyan kingdom. Tondi and Muziris were the best known port. Vanji or Karur was its capital.

Political History

• The three major kingdoms Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas ruled over Tamiliham. (The extreme south of India from the Tirupati hill to Cape Comorin (Kanya Kumari) bounded by the sea on the east and west, was known as Tamiliham. 
• The second Rock Edict of Ashoka mentions the names of the Cholas, Pandyas, Satiyaputra and Keralaputra. These countries lay outside the empire of Ashoka. 
• The Chera kingdom was the oldest of  the three.
• The king was the very centre and embodiment of administration. 
• The most common form of government in the Sangam age was hereditary monarchy. 
• The king was called Ko, Mannam, Vendan, Korravan, etc. 
• The king’s power was restricted by five councils. These five consisted of:

1. Amaichchar (ministers)
2. Purohitar (priests)
3. Senapatiyar (army chiefs)
4. Dutar (ambassadors)
5. Orrar (spies).

• The ministers advised the kings on matters on which they were consulted.
• The village was the smallest unit of administration. The small village assembly met there to transact local business. 
• The entire kingdom was called Mandalam. 
• Below the Mandalam a major division was Nadu. 
• The Ur was a town which was sometimes  described as a big village (Perur), a small village (Sirur) or an old village (Mudur). 
• Pattinam was the name for a coastal town and Puhar was the harbour area. 
• Salai was the trunk road and Teru the street in a town. 
• Uraiyar was the Chola inland capital; Korkai was the Pandyan coastal capital and Madurai was the Pandyan inland capital. Musiri was the Chera port.

The Cheras

• Udiyanjeral was the first important Chera king. The title vanavaramban and perunjoran udiyan are applied to him by the poet Mudinagarayar in Puram.  

Know the Important Facts

• The extreme south of India from the Tirupati hill (Vengadam) to Cape Camorin (Kanya Kumari), bounded by the sea on the east and west, was known as Tamilagan or Tamilham.
• The second and thirteenth Rock Edicts of Ashoka mention the southern kingdoms and Sri Lanka.
• The list in the second Edict, which comprises by name the Cholas, Pandyas, Satiyaputra and Keralaputra, besides Tambraparni.
• Tamil is the oldest among the spoken literary languages of South India.
• Virtually no Roman coins of the third century have been found in India.
• The first and second centuries A.D. formed the period when Roman trade with India was brisk.
• Muziri and Tondi on the west coast of South India, Korkai and Kaveripattinam on the east were among the chief ports of the Tamil land.
• There is a reference in Silappadikaram to king Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka being present on the occasion of the installation of a temple to Kannagi, by the Chera king Senguttuvan.
• Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka is known to have ruled in the second half of the second century A.D., and so Senguttuvan is assigned to that century. 
• Senguttuvan, also known as the Red Chera was the son of Nedenjeral. He was the greatest of the Cheras and built a temple to Kannaji, the heroine of Silappadikaram.
• Senguthuvan was the contemporary of the poet Pannar.
• According to Silappadikaram Senguthuvan was the founder of the Pattini cult related to the worship of the goddess of chastity.
• The cheras were known by many equivalent titles Vannar, Villavar, Khudavar, Kuttuvar, Malaiyar and Poraiyar etc.

The Cholas

• Karikala was the greatest king of the Cholas. He was a contemporary of the Chera King Perunjeral Adan. He founded the new capital at Puhar.
• According to tradition recorded in Manimekalai, a good part of the port town of Puhar was engulfed by the sea during the reign of Chola King Killivalavan.
• The Cholas were known as Sennis, Sembiyas, Valavan and Killi. 

The Pandyas

• Sangam literature refers primarily to Pandyan kingdom but also contains informations about Cholas and Cheras.
• Pandyas were the first south Indian kindgom to be mentioned by Megasthenes and it was the first literary evidence of south Indian kingdoms.
• Nedunjeliyan was the most important king of the Pandyas mentioned in Silappadikaram.
• The earliest known Pandyan ruler was Palyagasalai Mudukudumi.
• According to Silappadikaram, Nedunjelliyan, in a fit of passion, ordered, without judicial enquiry, the execution of Kovalan, the hero of Silappakigaram. Kovalan was accused of theft but later Kovalan’s wife Kannagi proved her husband’s innocence. The king was struck with remorse and died of shock on the throne.
• The Pandyas were known as Manivar, Kavuriyar, Panchavar, Seliyar, Marar, Valudi and Tennar etc.

LITERATURE: THE SANGAM AGE

The Sangam Literature

The Ancient Tamil Siddhar Agastyar is traditionally believed to have chaired the first Tamil Sangam in Madurai.

The Sangam  Literature

• The period roughly between the 3rd century B.C. and 3rd century A.D. in South India (the area lying to the south of river Krishna and Tungabhadra) is known as Sangam Period.
• It has been named after the Sangam academies held during that period that flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai.
• At the sangams eminent scholars assembled and functioned as the board of censors and the choicest literature was rendered in the nature of anthologies.
• These literary works were the earliest specimens of Dravidian literature.
• According to the Tamil legends, there were three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) held in the ancient South India popularly called Muchchangam.
  1. The First Sangam, is believed to be held at Madurai, attended by gods and legendary sages.
  2. The Second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, only Tolkappiyam survives from this.
  3. The Third Sangam was also held at Madurai. A few of these Tamil literary works have survived and are a useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period
  Try yourself:The First Sangam, ​is believed to be held at _____

Earliest Tamil Works

• The Agattiyam was written by saint Agattiyar, is now extent in small shreds of sutras here and there, quoted by medieval commentators. 
• The Tolkappiyam was written by Tolkappiyar, supposed to be a disciple of Agastya and a contemporary of eleven other scholars who were all disciple of the same Rishi. 
• It is a work on Tamil grammar, literary tradition and sociology. 
• Purapporul Venba Malai, a medieval work on the grammar of the Puram literature, says that the twelve scholars jointly produced Pannirupadalam,  a grammatical work on Puram literature. 
• The Kakkaipadiniyam, an extinct work on prosody, is also ascribed by tradition to that period. 
• Traditionally, Tolkappiyam is supposed to lay down the grammatical rules which governed the literary compositions of the Sangam age. 
• The sutras of the Tolkappiyam are elaborate and extensive in range. 
• Orthography, construction, prosody, figures of speech, social practices, literary conventions, human psychology in so far as it relates to epic and dramatic literature, the grammar of the Aham (love) and Puram (war) and the allied conventions are set forth in detail in this work. 
• It is schematic and divided into three sections, each consisting of nine sub-chapters.
  Try yourself:
  The Tolkappiyam was written by ______

Know The Important Facts

• The word ‘Sangam’ for the early Tamil literature was mentioned for the first time by the Shaiva Saint Tirunavukkarasu Naynar who belonged to the early seventh century.
• The titles of the Cheras were: Vanavar, Villavar, Kudavar, Kuttuvar, Poraiyar, Malaiyar etc.
• The titles of the Cholas: Sennis, Sembiyas, Valavan and Killi.
• The titles of the Pandyas: Minavar, Kavuriyar, Panchavar, Tennar, Seliyar, Marar, Valudi etc.
• The Chera king Udiyanjeral was called Vanavaramban and Perujoran Udiyan by the poet Mudinagarayar in Puram.
• According to Silappad-karam, Pirakotitiya Senaguttuvan was the founder of the famous Pattini cult.
• According to a tradition recorded in Manimekalai, a good part of the port town of Puhar was engulfed by the sea in terrific tidal waves, during the reign of the later Chola king Killivalavan.
• According to Silappadi-karam, Nedunjelian, in a fit of passion, ordered without judicial enquiry the execution of Kovalan, the hero of Silappadikaram.
• The king was called Ko, Mannam, Vendan, Korravan or Iraivan.
• Soldiers were rewarded by the grant of maraya (military honour or fief) and the enadi title for particular act of heroism.
• Kadimaram or a Kavalmaram is a tutelary tree. It was believed that the tree had the power to protect the town.
• Viralis were the professional dancing girls.
• Yal and Padalai were the musical instruments.
• Tunaigai and alliyam were the dance forms.
• Pulaiyars were the craftmen who handled their needles with deftness.
• Panik-Kalari was an important industrial ‘factory’ where weapons
   of war were forged and repaired.

Try yourself:The titles of the Cholas were _______

• a. Sennis
  
• b. Sembiyas
  
• c. Valavan
  
• d. Killi
• e. all the above

POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS DURING VEDIC PERIOD

Political Condition
 Rig Vedic Period

• The earliest Aryan kingdoms were founded by four kings, Iksaku, Pramsu, Sudyunma and Saryata, all stated to be the sons of Manu Vaivasvata.
• The word rajan or raja in the Rigveda denoted a tribal chief and not a monarchical king.
• Kingship was generally hereditary but elected monarchies were not unknown.
• The chiefs received from the people voluntary offerings called bali.
• The king did not maintain any regular or standing army. But during the period of war different tribal groups called vrata, gana, grama, sardha formed a militia.
• In the Atharvaveda both the Sabha and Samiti are noted as two daughters of Prajapati.
• Sabha is mentioned in the Rig Veda and Atharva Veda as a hall of gambling.
• The term ‘Vidatha’ is found in the Rig Veda and also in the Athavaveda but its meaning is not clear.
• The term 'Parisad' literally means ‘sitting round’ is available in the earlier Vedic literature.
• The ‘jana’ was the highest political or social unit among the Vedic Aryans. ‘Jana’ was used in the Rigveda and in later literature in a collected sense i.e., to denote a people or a tribe.
  Try yourself:What is the meaning of term ‘Parishad’ found in ancient Vedic texts?

  • a.Student
  • b.Sitting around
  • c.The highest political or social unit of people
  • d.Hall of Gambling

Later Vedic Period

Later Vedic Period

• There was a greater demand for military leadership.
• Laid the foundation for the state powers and kingship.
• On the evidence of Nirukta, it is known that these were elected kings even in the later Vedic age.
• It is stated in the Gautama Dharmasastra that the king was the Lord of all, but not of Brahmanas.
• The Bharatas of the Rigveda now had lost its political strength and their place was taken by the Kurus and Panchalas
• Divine theory of kingship was widely accepted by the subjects.
• The king performed sacrifices like the vajapeya, the rajasuya, and the ashwamedha, to symbolise the degree of success achieved in realising their ambitions.
• Raja was used for an ordinary ruler, and adhiraja, samrat, virat, ekarat and sarvabhauma denoted various gradations of suzerains.
• Considerable decrease in the importance and function of the popular assemblies. i.e., sabha, samiti, etc.,
• The Samiti, which gradually began to disappear from the time of the Samhitas, completely faded out in the later Vedic age.
• Parisad evolved itself into a selected body of scholars dominated by priests.
  Try yourself:In which text it is stated that - ‘King is lord of all, but not of Brahmanas’?

  • a.Manu Sastra
  • b.Gautama Dharmasastra
  • c.Meemansa Sastra
  • d.Nyaya Sastra

Few More Information

• Aitareya Brahmana, one of the later Vedic texts, tells us how the gods and demons decided to have a raja (king) to lead them against their enemies. The gods appointed Soma (Indra) as their king. Thus the kingship came into existence in India as a military necessity.In the Atharva Veda the king Parikshit was described as a god among men.
• The Satapatha Brahmana describes the king as the invisible symbol of god Prajapati himself.
• In the Tandya Brahmana a sacrifice is mentioned whereby the officiating Brahmana would help the subjects to destroy the king.

The term ‘Vidatha’ is found in the Rig Veda and also in the Atharvaveda.Aryans in Vedic period

Try yourself:In which Veda, King Parikshit was described as a God among men?

• a.Rig Veda
• b.Yajur Veda
• c.Sama Veda
• d.Atharva Veda 

• On the evidence of Nirukta, it is known that there were elected kings even in the later Vedic period.
• It is stated in the Gautama Dharmasutra that the king was the lord of all, but not of the Brahmanas.
• Suta and Gramani were also known as Raja Kartri or kingmaker.
• According to the Prasna Upanishad, one of the lowest rung of the ladder stood the village officials (adhikari) appointed by the king.
• ‘Gana’ the technical word for the republic, is found at forty-six places in the Rig Veda.
• There is at least one reference in the Rig Veda in which the leader of the gana is given the title of ‘Rajan’.
• The term Ibhas and Ibbyas apply to the class of king’s retainers.
• The terms upastis and stis apply to the group of king’s clients or dependents.

Social Condition
 Rig  Vedic Period

• There is nowhere in the Rig-veda any indication of the castes.
• The foundation of the Hindu social system based on the classes has to be traced from the Purusasukta of the Rigveda which divides society into four major classes. i.e. brahmana, rajanya, vaisya and sudra.
  "I am a poet, my father is a doctor, and my mother is a grinder of corn" —RigVeda.
• Food & Dress
• Besides wheat and barley, milk was the chief article of food.
• Meat of sheep and goats were rarely eaten by the people.
• The cow was deemed ‘aghnya’ (not to be slaughtered) because of her usefulness.
• Soma and Sura were the two intoxicating drinks.
• They generally used garments consisted of three parts, namely nivi or undergarment, vasa or a garment, and an adhivasa or an overgerment.

Eighteen Puranas

•  Vishnu, Bhagavata, Naradiya, Garuda, Padma, and Varaha (all are Sauvika Puranas)
•  Brahmanda, Brahmavaivanta, Markandya, Bhavishya and Vamana (all are Rajas Puranas)
•  Siva, Linga, Skanda, Agni, Matsya and Kurma (all are Tamasa Puranas)
  Try yourself:Which of the following Puranas is a part of Tamasa Puranas?

  • a.Vishnu Purana
    
  • b.Agni Purana
    
  • c.Padma Purana
    
  • d.Markandya Purana

Position of Women

The journey of Indian Women

• In the Vedic period, women enjoyed a very respectable position in the society.
• The women took part in Vedic discussions, and mixed with men in popular festives.
• Non-Aryan women appear to have joined the army in large numbers.
• From the use of the words ‘Parividana’ and ‘Parivitta’ we may surmise that the brothers and sisters were married according to seniority.
• Widows were allowed to remarry, probably in such cases where the dead had left no son.
• The customs of child marriage, sati and slavery were unknown.
  Later Vedic Period
• The later Vedic Society was divided into four varnas called the brahmanas, rajanya or kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras
• All the three higher varnas were entitled to upanayana.
• The Nishadas were non-Aryan lived in their villages.

Rig vedic society

• The Vratyas were the members of the Aryan race but led nomadic life.
• Varna ashrama dharma was not well established in Vedic times. In the post Vedic texts we hear of four stages of life.
• The institution of gotra appeared in the later Vedic times.
• Gotra, Vis, and Jana may be corresponding to the viz., Zantu and Dagun of the Iranian world.
• In the Taittriya Aranyaka and the Aitareya Upanishads, ladies are directed to leave the hall of learning where some principles of gynaecology were explained, which are indelicate for the female ear.
• Women were excluded from inheriting the property.
• The Vedic chaturvarna (four castes) concept of social order came from the basic human tendencies and practices which were categorised under four major divisions for constitution of effective social bodies and proper distribution of social work among them.
• The said four categories are based on the following tendency.
  Try yourself:Which of the following statements are incorrect about a woman in vedic period?

  • a.Women were included in inheriting the property.
  • b.Widows were allowed to remarry, probably in such cases where the dead had left no son.
  • c.Sati & Slavery were not part of Vedic civilization
    
  • d.Non-Aryan women appear to have joined the army in large numbers.
  
  (a) Brahmanic tendency: thinking and practices of knowledge and understanding;
  (b) Kshatriya tendency: aggression, establishment of power structure and order;
  (c) Vaishya tendency: trade, production, technological pursuits and wealth; and
  (d) Shudra tendency: service orientation, willingness to continue and fulfil the necessary functions.
• Purusasukta states that Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras originated respectively from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the creator.
• In the Aitareya Brahmana the Vaisya is described as a cultivator or merchant who lived on his source of profit in trade.
• In the Aitareya Brahmana it has been said that the Shudra was not so much fortunate. He was servant of another, who could be expelled or punished at will.
• Varnashrama: The life of an individual Aryan was divided into four stages:
  (a) Brahmacharya (b) Grirhasta
   (c) Vanaprastha   (d) Sanyasa

Coins used for tradingThe series of these four stages of an ideal span of life cover the study, the family life, the asceticism and the renunciation in a single life-time. The entire life passed through karma to take a perfect shape.

• The Family
• The ancient Hindu family included parents, children, grandchildren, uncles and their decendents, the adopted children, a number of servants and clients.
• The Child
• The jatakarma took place immediately after the birth by cutting the umbilical cord, by whispering sacred mantras and by placing a mixture of honey and ghee into his mouth.
• When the child became six months, the annaprasana ceremony (first feeding of solid food) was held.
• At the age of three, the kshura karma (tonsure) took place in case of the male child where the scalp of the child head being shaved.
• At the age of five, the child is taught the alphabets by a Brahmana priest or teacher.
• With his upanayana (sacred thread ceremony) at the age of nine, the boy attained the status of dvija or Brahmacharin. The Yajnopavita or Yajna Sutra (sacred thread) consisted of nine twisted strands made of cotton.
• The ceremony included the whispering of the sacred gayatri mantra into the ears of the dwija. The gayatri  mantra runs thus:

“Let us meditate on the beautiful splendour of the god savitri (sun) that he may purify our souls.”
 

Education
The education of the boy or girl started with upanayana or the ceremonial initiation in Vedic studies. It was similar to the Indo-Iranian ceremony of navjot.
 The first lessons of the Brahmana student was the performance of trisandhya (devotion for three times a day).Ceremony was performed after the completion of 12 years of educationThe main subject of study was actually the Vedas. The other fields of study:
 (a) Vedangas (commentaries on the Vedas)
 (b) Kalpa (injunction)
 (c) Shiksha (education)
 (d) Chhandas (metrical composition)
 (e) Nirukta (etymology)
 (f) Jyotisa (astrology)
 (g) Vyakarana (grammar)
 (h) Jyotirvidya (astronomy)
 (i) Aastrovidya (archery)
 (j) Ganitshasra (mathematics)
 (k) Sahitya (literature) 

Try yourself:Upanayana is a sacred thread ceremony conducted for a male child. This ceremony is usually done for the child at the age of?

• a.7
• b.8
• c.9
• d.10

Costumes and Jewellery

• The lower paridhana or vasana was usually a piece of cloth fastened round the waist with a string. It is known as mekhala.
• The upper garment was called uttariya or chadar, a thin cotton shawl dropped over the shoulders. Later on dhoti and sari became popular.
• Vadhuya was a special garment worn by the bride at the marriage ceremony.
• Kuriya was a kind of head-ornament worn by females, specially brides.
• Nyochani was another type of bride’s ornament.
• Khadi was a kind of ring, worn as an armlet or an anklet.
• Mani was a kind of jewel worn round the neck.
• Rukma was an ornament worn on the breast.

LITERATURE: THE VEDIC PERIOD

Literature

• Veda means knowledge, comes from the root vid (to know). They are given the titles of Apaurusheja (not made by man) and Nitya (eternal).
  Literature - Vedic Period
• The Veda consists of four different classes of literary composition, namely Mantras, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upnishads.
• Mantras: (saying, song, formula) consists of the oldest division of Vedic literature and is distributed in four samhitas (or collection); Rig Veda Samhita, Sam Veda Samhita Yajur Veda, Samhita and Athrva Veda Samhita. The first three are known  as Trayi (three fold knowledge).
• Samhita of Rig Veda is a collection of lyrics in praise of different gods. These were recited by the priest styled Hotri. It contains 1028 hymns, divided into 10 mandalas and some times into 8 astakas. But the former division is more popular. II-VII mandalas are the earliest and are also called family books. They are attributed to Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vasudev, Attri, Bhardwaj and Vashistha. Mandala VIII is attributed to Kanva and Angiras. Mandala IX is attributed to Soma.
• It gives us an insight into the political, social, economic and religious life of the people of Rig Vedic India.
• Samhita of Sam Veda - (books of chants) - All of its verses except 75 being taken directly from Rig-veda. These verses are given tune for the purpose of singing. Its songs were meant to be sung at some sacrifice by a special class of priests called Udgatri. It shows that Aryans loved music and were not marely puritans.
• Samhita of Yajur Veda (book of sacrificial prayers) - It deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices. It contains rituals as well as hymns. Recited by Advaryu.
• It can be divided into two parts:
• (a) Shyama Yajur Veda (Black Yajur Veda) - It is older and contains commentary in prose in addition to the text.
• (b) Sukla Yajur Veda (White Yajur Veda). It contains instructions only.
• Samhita of Athrva Veda (book of magical formula) also known as non-Aryan work some of its hymns are as old as the earliest hymns of Rig-veda. From the historical and scientific point of view resembles the Rig Veda, however its spirit is different. It is divided into 20 books.

 

Upanishads

It is a collection of songs, spells and incantations for the cure of disease, the restoration of harmony and the exorcism of evil spirit etc.

• The Aitareya and Kaushitaki Upanishads belong to Rig Veda.
• Chandogya and Kena Upanishad belong to Sama Veda 
• Taittiriya, Katha and Svetasvata belong to the Krishna Yajur Veda.
• Brihadaanyaka and Isa belong to the skla Yajur Veda
• Prasna, Mundaka and Mundukya belong to the Atharva Veda.

(2) Brahmanas—They marked the transition from the Vedic to later Brahmanical social order.

• They explain meaning of sacrifices and also the methods of performing them.
• They are commentries on various hymns of the Vedas to which they are appended.
• Each Brahmana is connected with one of the Samhitas.
• The three Brahmanas contain a lot of information about the non-Aryans and also tell us the methods by which the non-Aryans were to be admitted into the Aryan fold.
• To Rig Veda - Aitareya Brahmana and Kaushtaki Brahmana.
• To Sama Veda - Tandya-maha Brahmana, Sadvinsa Brahmana, Jaiminiya Brahmana.
• To Yajur Veda - Satapatha Brahmana; most exhaustive and most impotant of all the Brahmanas; points out the progress of culture from Panchala to Videha.
• To Atharva Veda - Gopatha Brahmana
• The difference between the Brahmanas connected with the various Vedas lies in the fact that the Brahmanas of the respective Vedas     deals with the work of different priests.
• As regards their fundamentals all the Brahmanas agree with one another to a very great extent.
• Aranyakas  (forest book) -These are the books of instructions to be given in the forest meant for wood dwelling hermits.
• They are found as appendices to the Brahmanas.
• It marks the transition from ritualistic to philosophical thought.
• Upanishads  (secret or esoteric doctrine) - Its name is derived from UPANISAD i.e “to sit near some one”. - There are 108 Upnishads altogether. - They contain deep speculations of a philosophical character which revolve around the two concepts of Brahma and Atma.

Comparison between Dravidian and Aryan Culture

• The Dravidians did not initiate and practise a  social theory like Aryan theory of varnashrama—Brahmanas, Kshtriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
• The caste-system, the very framework of the Aryan society, was conspicuous by its absence in the Dravidian society.
• The Dravidian laws of matrimonial alliances differed fundamentally from those of the Aryans. The Dravidians could marry within the fold of their blood relations, while the Aryans were denied this privilege.
• The social system of Dravidians, being matriarchal, was quite in contradiction to the patriarchal system of the Aryans.
• Their mode of life, customs, manners, religion and languages differed from those of the Aryans.

Differences between the Indus Valley Civilization and the Vedic Culture 

• Harappan civilization was superior to that of the Vedic culture.
• Indus Valley Civilization was an urban civilization whereas the Aryan culture was pastoral.
• The Indus valley people made use of only copper and bronze and iron was not known to them.
• There was brisk trade (inland and foreign) during the Harappan period.
• Humped-bull was probably a sacred animal to the Indus valley people whereas cow occupied a sacred place among the Aryans.
• The Indus valley people worshipped mother gooddesses.
• The Indus valley society was theocratic in nature. But the Aryan society was secular.
• The Indus valley people, although they are not artistic, made considerable progress in the field of art. Whereas the Aryans though possessed an artistic temperament failed to leave any signs of such craftsmanship.
• The Harappan people buried their dead bodies while the Aryans burnt them.
• The Indus people practised the cult of Sakti and Pasupati and worship of animal, tree, stone, phallus and yoni. 
• Aryan religion is mainly concerned with sky.
• The Indus people traded with foreign countries but did not adopt their positive things. They believed in isolation The plasticity of the Aryan mind is shown in the quick adoptation of agriculture and settled life as well as the use of language which in the Rig Veda rises to musical levels. This capacity of change and adapt has given continuity to Indian civilization.