MISCELLANEOUS: THE VEDIC CULTURE

Important Rituals

Rajasuya: The king’s influence was strengthened by rituals. He performed this sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power on him.
Asvamedha: A king performed the Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over an area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted.

Asvamedha ritual

Vajapeya: A king performed the Vajapeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen.

Chief Priests
The four chief priests who were engaged in performing the Shrauta sacrifiices were called Hotri, the invoker, Adhvaryu, the executor of the sacrifice, Udgatri, the singer, and Brahman, the high priest.

• Hotri: They recited Rig Samhita.
  
• Udgatri: They chanted the songs of Sama Samhita at the Soma sacrifice.
  
• Adhvaryu: Formulae of Yajur Samhita were to be uttered by the Adhvaryu priests who performed the manual work involved in a sacrifice.

Types of Marriage
(i) Brahma: Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same class.
(ii) Daiva: In this type of marriage, the father gives a daughter to a sacrificial priest as part of his fee.
(iii) Arsa: In this type of marriage, a token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given in place of the dowry.
(iv) Prajapatya: The father gives the girl without dowry and without demanding the bride-price.
(v) Gandharva: Marriage by the consent of the two parties, which might be solemnized merely by plighting troth.
(vi) Asrua: Asura marriage, in which the bride was bought from her father, was looked upon with disfavour by all the sacred texts, though the Arishashastra allows it without criticism.
(vii) Rakshasa: Rakshasamarriage, or marriage by capture, was practised especially by warriors.
(viii) Paishacha: It was the seduction of girl while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk  Of these eight forms the first four were generally approved and were permissible to brahmans. The other forms were looked on with varying degrees of disfavours by the pious. Gandharva marriage, which often might amount to no more than a liaison, was surprisingly respected. A special form of the gandharva marriage was the Swaymvar or “self-choice”.

Philosophical Systems
A large number of school of thought was prevalent in ancient times, but we know nine of them as the most important and influential. 

They are the Charvaka, Jaina, Buddha, Vaisheshika, Nyaya, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimansa and Vedanta. They fall into two groups, Astika and Nastika, the former believing in the authority of the Vedas and the latter discarding it. The first three systems are Nastika and all others are Astika. Jaina and Buddha schools of philosophy will be dealt with separately.

Charvaka System: The Charvaka system, also called Lokayata Darshna (the philosophy of the masses) propounds gross materialism.
 Among the orthodox systems of philosophy (Astika) there is some similarity and affinity between Nyaya and Vaisheshika, between Sankhya and Yoga, and between Mimansa and Vedanta. In the first two systems there is an affinity of philosophical doctrines, in the last two affinity is limited to the foundations and procedures, both systems having Vedic texts (one earliers and the other later) as their source, and the method of interpretation of the texts as the process of thinking. The Mimansakas recognize the Vedas as the final authority in determining the duties of man, and the Vedantists in gaining true knowledge about man and the universe. One is concerned with Karma-Kanda and the other with the Jnana-kanda of the Vedas, that is, the Samhitas and the Brahmanas, and the Upanishads respectively. This “Six systems of Hindu Philosophy” is also know as Shad-darshana.
(i) Vaisheshika (Particular Characteristics) : Propounded by Uluka Kanada. It is a realistic, analytic, and objective philosophy of the world.
(ii) Nyaya (Analysis): Propounded by Akshapad Gautama. It accepts all the categories recognized by the Vaisheshika system and adds one Abhava (negation).
(iii) Sankhya (Enumeration): Its legendary founder was Kapila. It is perhaps the oldest of the six systems, being mentioned in the Bhagavad Gita and occurring in a primitive form in the Upanishada. It is dualistic in its ontology. It believes in two ultimate realities Prakriti and Purusha.
(iv) Yoga (Application): Propounded by Patanjali. It is more or less applied Sankhya. It was based on the control of the body physically and implied that a perfect control over the body and the senses led to knowledge of the ultimate reality.
(v) Mimmnsa or Purva Mimamsa (Inquiry): Propounded by Jaimini. It is a philosophy of interpretation, application and use of texts of the Samhita and Brahamana portions of the Vedas.
(vi) Vedanta (End of the Vedas): It is also called Uttara Mimansa. The basic text of the system is the Brahma Sutras of Badarayana. Vedanta was decisive in refuting the theories of non-brahmanical schools.

PREVIOUS 25 YEARS OF UPSC ESSAY QUESTIONS

What is being judged in the essay part of the UPSC paper is not just the candidate’s knowledge but the way he expresses himself. A good knowledge base is essential but not the sufficient condition for writing a good essay in the UPSC Mains. What is required, in addition, is an ability to critically analyse things, a rational and wide thinking and, of course, a good command over the language. The language should be simple but beautiful and expressive.Language is a medium to express one’s thoughts and unless both language and thoughts are of a good quality and work in tandem, a good essay cannot be created.

What are the topics on which essays were asked in the previous UPSC examinations?

In the year 1993, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. My vision of India in 2001 AD.
2. The emerging global order—political and economic.
3. “He who reigns within himself and rules his passions, desires and fears is more than a king.”
4. Compassion is the basis of all morality.
5. Men have failed, let women take over.
6. Economic growth without distributive justice is bound to breed violence.
7. Ecological considerations need not hamper development.
8. Computer: The harbinger of a silent revolution.

In the year 1994, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. The challenge before a civil servant today.
2. Indian society at the cross road.
3. Youth is a blunder, manhood a struggle, old age a regret.
4. Modernization and Westernization are not identical concepts.
5. A useless life is an early death.
6. Politics, business and bureaucracy—a fatal triangle.
7. Multinational corporations-saviours or saboteurs.

In the year 1995, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Politics without ethics is a disaster.
2. The new emerging woman power the ground realities.
3. When money speaks, the truth is silent.
4. Whither Indian democracy?
5. Restructuring of the Indian education system.
6. Disinterested intellectual curiosity is the life blood of real civilization.
7. Our deeds determine us as much as we determine our deeds.

In the year 1996, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Literacy is growing very fast but there is no corresponding growth in education.
2. Restructuring of the UNO to reflect present realities.
3. New cults and godman— a threat to traditional religions.
4. The VIP cult is a bane of Indian democracy.
5. Need for transparency in Public Administration.
6. Truth is lived, not taught.

In the year 1997, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. What we have not learnt during fifty years of Independence.
2. Judicial activism.
3. Great political power will not improve women's plight.
4. True religion can not be misused.
5. The modern doctors and its patients.
6. Urbanization is a blessing in disguise.

In the year 1998, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Composite culture of India.
2. Woman is god's best creation.
3. Misinterpretation and misuse of freedom in India.
4. India's contribution to world's wisdom.
5. The language problem in India - its past, present and prospects.
6. World of the 21st century.

In the year 1999, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Women's empowerment–The challenge and prospect.
2. The youth culture today.
3. Mass media and cultural invasion.
4. Resource management in the Indian context.
5. Value based science and education.
6. Reservation, politics and empowerment.

In the year 2000, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Why should we be proud of being Indians?
2. The Cyber World — Its charms & challenges.
3. The country’s need for a better disaster management system.
4. Indian Culture today—a myth or a reality?
5. The implication of Globalisation for India.
6. Modernism and our transitional socio-ethical values.

In the year 2001, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. What have we gained from our democratic set-up?
2. My vision of an ideal world order.
3. The march of science and the erosion of human values.
4. Irrelevance of the classroom.
5. The pursuit of excellence.
6. Empowerment alone cannot help our women.

In the year 2002, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Modern technological education and human values.
2. Search for truth can only be a spiritual problem.
3. If youth knew, if age could.
4. The paths of glory lead but to the grave.
5. Privatization of higher education in India.
6. Responsibility of media in a democracy.

In the year 2003, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. The Masks of New Imperialism.
2. How far has democracy in India delivered the goods?
3. How should a civil servant conduct himself?
4. As civilization advances culture declines.
5. There is nothing either good or bad but thinking makes it so.
6. Spirituality and Scientific temper.

In the year 2004, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. India’s Role in Promoting ASEAN Co-operation.
2. Judicial Activism and Indian Democracy.
3. Whither Women’s Emancipation?
4. Globalizations and Its Impact on Indian Culture.
5. The Lure of Space.
6. Water Resources Should Be Under the Control of the Central Government.

In the year 2005, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Justice must reach the poor.
2. The hand that rocks the cradle.
3. If women ruled the world.
4. What is real education?
5. Terrorism and world peace.
6. Food security for sustainable national development.

In the year 2006, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Women’s Reservation Bill Would Usher in Empowerment for Women in India.
2. Protection of Ecology and Environment is Essential for Sustained Economic Development.
3. Importance of Indo-U.S. Nuclear Agreement.
4. “Education for All” Campaign in India: Myth or Reality.
5. Globalization Would Finish Small-Scale Industries in India.
6. Increasing Computerization Would lead to the Creation of a Dehumanized Society.

In the year 2007, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Independent thinking should be encouraged right form the childhood.
2. Evaluation of Panchayati Raj System in India from the point of view of eradication of power to people.
3. Attitude makes, habit makes character and character makes a man.
4. Is Autonomy the best answer to combat balkanization?
5. How has satellite television brought about cultural change in Indian mindsets.
6. BPO boom in India.

In the year 2008, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Role of Media in good governance.
2. National Identity and Patriotism.
3. Special Economic Zone: Boon or Bane.
4. Discipline means success , anarchy means ruin.
5. Urbanisation and Its Hazards.
6. Is an Egalitarian society possible by educating the masses?

In the year 2009, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Are our traditional handicrafts doomed to a slow death?
2. Are  we a ‘Soft’ state?
3. “The focus of health care is increasingly getting skewed towards the ‘haves’ of our society”.
4. “Good Fences make good neighbours”.
5. ‘Globalization’ vs. ‘Nationalism’.

In the year 2010, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Geography may remain the same; history need not.
2. Should a moratorium be imposed on all fresh mining in tribal areas of the country?
3. Preparedness of our society for India’s global leadership role.
4. From traditional Indian philanthropy to the Gates-Buffet model-a natural progression or a paradigm shift?

In the year 2011, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Creation of smaller states and the consequent administrative , economic and developmental implication.
2. Does Indian Cinema shape our popular culture or merely reflect it.
3. Credit – based higher education system – status , opportunities and challenges.
4. In the Indian context, Both human intelligence and technical intelligence are crucial in combating terrorism.

In the year 2012, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. In the context of Gandhiji’s views on the matter, explore, on an evolutionary scale, the terms ‘Swadhinata’, ‘Swaraj’ and ‘Dharmarajya’. Critically comment on their contemporary relevance to Indian democracy.
2. Is the criticism that the ‘Public-Private-Partnership’ (PPP) model for development is more of a bane than a boon in the Indian context, justified?
3. Science and Mysticism: Are they compatible?
4. Managing work and home – is the Indian working woman getting a fair deal?

In the year 2013, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

1. Be the change you want to see in others (Gandhi).
2. Is the Colonial mentality hindering India’s Success.
3. GDP (Gross Domestic Product) along with GDH (Gross Domestic Happiness) would be the right indices for judging the well being of a country.
4. Science and technology is the panacea for the growth and security of the nation.

In the year 2014, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:
Section A

1. With greater power comes greater responsibility.
2. Is the growing level of competition good for youth?
3. Are the standardized tests good measures of academic ability or progress?
4. Words are sharper than the two-edged sword.

Section B

1. Was it the policy paralysis or the paralysis of implementation which slowed the growth of our country?
2. Is sting operation an invasion on privacy?
3. “Fifty Golds in Olympics”: Can this be a reality for India?
4. “Tourism”: Can this be the next big thing for India?

In the year 2015, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:
Section-A

1. Lending hands to someone is better than giving a dole.
2. Quick but steady wins the race.
3. Character of an institution is reflected in its leader.
4. Education without values, as useful as it is, seems rather to make a man more clever devil.

Section-B

1. Technology cannot replace manpower.
2. Crisis faced in India – moral or economic.
3. Dreams which should not let India sleep.
4. Can capitalism bring inclusive growth?

In the year 2016, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:
Section - A 

1. If development is not engendered, it is endangered.
2. Need brings greed, if greed increases it spoils breed.
3. Water disputes between states in Federal India.
4. Innovation is the key determinant of economic growth & social welfare.

Section - B 

1. Cooperative federalism: Myth or reality.
2. Cyberspace and Internet: Blessing or curse to the human civilisation in the long run.
3. Near jobless growth in India: An anomaly or an outcome of economic reforms.
4. Digital economy: A leveller or a source of economic inequality.

In the year 2017, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:
Section - A

1. Farming has lost the ability to be a source of subsistence for majority of farmers in India.
2. Impact of the new economic measures on fiscal ties between the union and states in India.
3. Destiny of a nation is shaped in its classrooms.
4. Has the Non- Alignment Movement(NAM) lost its relevance in a multipolar world?

Section - B

1. Joy is the simplest form of gratitude.
2. Fulfillment of ‘new woman’ in India is a myth.
3. We may brave human laws but cannot resist natural laws.
4. Social media is inherently a selfish medium.

In the year 2018, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:
Section - A

1. Alternative technologies for a climate change resilient India
2. A good life is one inspired by love and guided by knowledge
3. Poverty anywhere is a threat to prosperity everywhere
4. Management of Indian border disputes – a complex task

Section - B

1. Customary morality cannot be a guide to modern life 
2. “The past’ is a permanent dimension of human consciousness and values 
3. A people that values its privileges above its principles loses both 
4. Reality does not conform to the ideal, but confirms it 

In the year 2019, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:
Section - A

1. Wisdom finds truth
2. Values are not what humanity is, but what humanity ought to be
3. Best for an individual is not necessarily best for the society
4. Courage to accept and dedication to improve are two keys to success

Section - B

1. South Asian societies are woven not around the state, but around their plural cultures and plural identities
2. Neglect of primary health care and education in India are reasons for its backwardness
3. Biased media is a real threat to Indian democracy
4. Rise of Artificial Intelligence: The threat of a jobless future or better job opportunities through reskilling and up-skilling.

In the year 2020, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

Section - A

1. Life is a long journey between human beings and being humane.

2. Mindful manifesto is the catalyst to a tranquil self.

3. Ships do not sink because of water around them, ships sink because of water that gets into them.

4. Simplicity is the ultimate sophistication.

Section - B

1. Culture is what we are, civilisation is what we have.

2. There can be no social justice without economic prosperity but economic prosperity without social justice is meaningless.

3. Patriarchy is the least noticed yet the most significant structure of social inequality.

4. Technology as the silent factor in international relations.

In the year 2021, the essays questions in UPSC Mains were:

Section - A

1. The process of self-discovery has now been technologically outsourced.

2. Your perception of me is a reflection of you; my reaction to you is an awareness of me.

3. Philosophy of wantlessness is Utopian, while materialism is a chimera.

4. The real is rational and the rational is real.

Section - B

5. Hand that rocks the cradle rules the world.

6. What is research, but a blind date with knowledge

7. History repeats itself, first as a tragedy, second as a farce.

8. There are better practices to “best practices”.

The purpose behind the introduction of the essay paper in the UPSC Civil Services Examination is to test the candidates’ writing skills. This means the simple, effective and original expression of one’s ideas.
The essays written in the resources are of the level that one would write in the final UPSC exam. So, these essays are not intended to be crammed. These are personal creations and so have an individuality of their own. These essays are expected to act as a catalyst to spark your mind with ideas. These should induce you to develop a wide perspective and a better line of thought on the topics so that you can write your own imagination in a manner that is appealing for the examiner as well. The intention is not to limit your thinking but to widen it.

FAQs related to Essay writing in UPSC

1. Do essay questions repeat in UPSC?
   Yes, it is correct! There are certain questions in UPSC examinations that are repeated from the previous year's tests, but only for a few topics. Repetitive questions from disciplines such as history, economics, and Indian politics have been noted for the previous 10 years.
2. Is handwriting important in UPSC?
   You must practise writing answers in order to pass the UPSC civil services test, and while doing so, you should also practise decent handwriting. It would undoubtedly assist you in achieving high results in the mains test. If you already have clear handwriting, don't bother too much about not having 'beautiful' writing.
3. How many pages should a UPSC essay be?
   A basic rule to remember in the test hall is that if the question has a word limit of 150 words, the answer should be written on one and a half A4 pages. If the number is 250, limit your response to 2.5 A4 pages. Not only will precise answers help you get better grades, but they will also save you a lot of time.

INTRODUCTION: THE VEDIC PERIOD

Introduction

• In previous chapters on the prehistoric period, you have seen that in different regions of India communities of different stages of cultural development were present during Ca. 2000-1000 B.C. 
• Their cultures were agro-pastoral and our understanding of these cultures is based entirely on archaeological remains because, with the exception of Harappa culture, none of these has left behind any written records. 
• However, we had before on the evidence provided by a voluminous body of religious texts which are considered by the literary records of India. We shall also try to supplement this evidence with, wherever relevant, archaeological evidence. 

The Vedas are the earliest manuscripts

The Rig Veda is considered to be the earliest of hymns available, and so, we shall start by examining the Rigveda for an understanding of the Early Vedic period and then go on to other Vedas and allied texts which are placed later. This exercise is necessary for two reasons. 

• First, the Vedas are thought to have been composed by the Aryans and it was long believed that the Aryans played a major role in civilising the Indian subcontinent. The contents of the Rigveda, if they are analysed carefully, do not give the impression of very advanced material culture. On the other hand, many of the material traits, which are characteristic of Indian civilization, are already present in the non-Vedic archaeological cultures in different parts of India. 
• Second, when the contents of the Rigveda are compared with the contents of Later Vedas and allied texts, it becomes clear that significant changes took place in the Vedic society itself.                                        

The 16 Mahajanapadas

• This means that there was no linked cultural pattern which can be called Vedic culture or Aryan culture. The core geographical area to which the evidence of the Rigveda could relate was Sapta-Sindhu or the land of seven rivers. This would correspond to the whole of Punjab and its neighbouring region Haryana, but Rigvedic geography also included the Gomal plains, southern Afghanistan and southern Jammu and Kashmir. Indo-Aryan migration from West Asia into the Indian subcontinent.
• These migrants who are regarded as the authors of the 'Vedas' are called the Vedic people. According to this historical interpretation, the Aryans came to India in several stages or waves. The Aryans are considered to represent a linguistic group speaking Indo-European languages. They are distinguished by traditional historians and archaeologists from the non-Aryan Harappans of the preceding period.
• However, in making certain observations on Early Vedic society it may be fruitful to see if literary texts and archaeological evidence can supplement each other. If both types of sources are of the same region and of the same period, then they together can give us more detected ideas on economic, social, political and religious life.  

Was the Aryan invasion a myth or a reality? 

Let us see to what extent archaeological evidence help us in answering this question. Archaeologists have attempted to relate the various post-Harappan cultures with the Aryans. 

• The Painted Grey Ware Pottery which has been dated between 900 B.C. to approximately 500 B.C., has been repeatedly connected with Aryan craftsmanship. Their argument is based on inferences that historians make from their analysis of the literary texts. 
• Hence, archaeologists, following linguistic similarities found between the Rigveda and the Avesta, tried to find similarities in pottery forms, paintings on ceramics and forms of copper objects etc. between post-Harappan and the West Asian/Iranian Chalcolithic assemblages. Such similarities were magnified to support the view that the Aryans were a group of people who migrated from West Asia to the Indian subcontinent. 

The Route of Aryans

Thus literary and archaeological sources were made to support one another in order to validate the notion of migration. Linguistic similarities between the Rigveda and the Avesta are not disputed. But such similarities do not really suggest large-scale migration of people into the Indian subcontinent. 

Also, the similarities which have been found between chalcolithic artefacts of India and those of Western Asia are only occasional. They also do not suggest large-scale migration of people. The concept of an "Aryan", as stated before, cannot be equated with any particular type of pottery. It also does not have any ethnic or racial significance. The 'Aryan' is, therefore, at best a vague concept, related to linguistic similarities between people.