PRE HISTORIC PERIOD OF ANCIENT INDIA

Pre Historic Period

 

Introduction 

Earth is very old and so is the antiquity of man. The earliest human fossils have been found in Africa dating about 4.2 million years. The primitive man was shorter in height and had a smaller brain. Homo sapiens evolved over a period of these years about 50,000 years ago. Humans have been using stone tools and their life story is, therefore, divided into Paleolithic,Mesolithic and Neolithic age.

Evolution of Man

First Fossile -- Male -Ramapithecus                     Female - Shivapithecus                                 (10-14 million years ago) These fossils were found in Shivalik and Salt range Homoerectus: Found in Hathnora (Lower Palaeolithic) 10 lakh B.C. Homo sapiens : Found in Upper Palaeolithic Regions

 

The designation of the cultural past of man was done by P.F. Suhm in as early as 1776. C.J.Thomsen, in 1836, followed the same to arrange the exhibits in Danish museums. Lubbock in France divided the stone age further into Paleolithic and Neolithic. In 1930, Gabriel de Mortillet, a French investigator, started the practice of naming cultural divisions in the manner of compartments or stages. Yet, it is generally classified as follows:-

Pre History
Palaeolithic Age or	Mesolithic Age or	Upper Palaeolithic Culture
Old stone age	Late Stone Age	New Stone age
(500,000-10,000 BC)	(10,000-4,000 BC)	(6,000-1,000 BC)

 

Palaeolithic Age cab be further divided into following:-

Pre Historic Phases
Stone Age	Primary Culture	Major Site	Importance
Lower Palaeolithic	Flakes,Chopper Chopping Culture	Kashmir, Punjab, Whole India except Sind and Kerala. Main :- Sohan(Punjab), Singrauli basin (U.P.), Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand), Assam, Narmada, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka.	- Head axe and pebble tools, Fossil of Homo Erectus from Hathnaura (Narmada basin) - Represented by Sohan Culture (now in Pakistan.)
Middle Palaeolithic	Scraper/Booer Culture	Navasa (Maharashtra), Didwana (Rajasthan), Bhimbetka (MP), Bankura and Purulia (West Bengal), Narmada Valley etc.	- Varieties of Blades, Points, Borer and Scraper made of Flakes. - 200 rock shelters and caves are located on Bhimbetka hills having thousands of paintings.
Upper Palaeolithic	Blade and Burin Culture	A.P. (Kurnool, Chittor) Karnataka, Central MP, Jharkhan Plateau, U.P., Rajasthan, Gujrat	- The age of Neanderthal Man  - Earlier "Homo Sapiens" - Harpoon, blade tools from Renugunta (A.P.) - Bone tools from Kurnool.
Meslithic Age	Microliths Culture or Fluting & Gometrical tools	Karnataka, Rajasthan (Bagor, Tilwara), Gujrat (Langhanj), M.P., Tamil Nadu,West Benal (Birbhanpur), U.P. (Sarai Nahar Rai)	- Microlith (a great technological development, introduction of compound tools) - Man still a savage but pottery maing (Tilwara) and permanent habitation found, still a hunder, fisher.
Neolithic Ate	Polished tool culture	Kashmir (Burzahom, Gufkral), Assam (Daojili Hading), Garohill Meghalaya, Bihar (Chirand), Peninsular India, Amri, Kotdiji, Mehargarh etc	- Earlies Farming community - Kinship became the basis of social organisation - Pit dwelling houses - Food begain to be cooked by fire -Evidence of dogs, circular huts made of bamboo, bone-tools, hand made pottery etc - Also called "Neolithic Revolution" -Boat making, spinning cotton and wool.

 

Palaeolithic Age (50,000 - 1,00,000 BC) 

It was basically a hunting and food gathering culture 'Palaeo' means 'old' and 'lithic' means 'stone'. Palaeolithic age in India is divided into three phases:

1. Early or Lower Palaeothic (50,000 - 100,000 BC) : It covers the greater part of the Ice Age and its characteristic feature is the use of hand-axe, cleaners and choppen
2. Middle Palaeothic (100,000 - 40,000 BC): The Middle Palaeothic culture is characterised by flakes. The principal tools are variety of blades, points and scrappers made of flakes.
3. Upper Palaeolithic (40,000 - 10,000 BC) : It marks the appearance of Homo Sapiens and new flint industries; widespread appearance of a figurines and other artifacts reflecting art and rituals; the appearance of wide range of bone tools, including needles, fishing tools, harpoons, blades and burin tools

Palaeolithic Age People :

Earliest Palaeolithic man lived on hunting and food gathering. The hunting and gathering pattern was dependent upon the season. The nature of stone tools also varied according to the climate. Not knowing how to grow his food, he ate fruits, birds, raw animal flesh etc. The people were wanderers and moved from places to place. They took refuge under the rocks in caves and hollow tree trunks.

Facts to Remember

The Palaeolithic culture of India developed in Pleistocene period. Robert Bruce Foot was the first to discover a Palaeolithic stone in India in 1863. The Palaeolithic research in India got a boost only with the coming of Yale Cambridge Expedition in 1935 led by Deterra and Patterson.  The tools were usually made of hard rock 'quartzite' and therefore Palaeolithic man in India is also called "Quartzite Man"

Rock paintings and carvings have been numerously founded in Bhimbetka from different periods. The animals depicted in these paintings were mostly bisons, elephants, tigers, rhinocerous, boars etc. and were based on their hunting lives. The upper Palaeolithic art is characterised by red and green colours.

Mesolithic Age (10,000 - 4,000 BC) 

It was the transitional between Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages. Its characcteristic tools are microliths all made of stone. The microliths were first discovered by Carlyle in 1867 from Vindhyan Rock Shelters. This age is also known by various names like Late Stone Age or Microlithic Age. The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food-gathering. Earliest domestication of animals has alo been witnessed from Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.

Mesolithic Tools : Tools are characterised by parallel-sided blades taken out from prepared cores of fine-materials as chert, crystal, chalcedony, jasper, carnelian, agate etc. and were generally one to five centimeters long.

Paintings : At various sites in Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, etc. rock and cave paintings have been discovered. In these paintings, various subjects including animals and human scenes have been found. Animals are the most frequently depicted subjects either alone or in large and small groups and shown in various poses.

Depiction of human figures in rock paintings is quite common. Dancing, running, hunting, playing games and quarrelling were commonly depicted scenes. Colours like deep red, gree, white and yellow were used in making these paintings.

Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)(6,000-1,000 BC) 

The word 'neolithic' was first coined by Sir John Lubbock in 1865. Miles Burkit enumerated four characteristics of neolithic culture

1. Animal domestication
2. Agricultural practice
3. Grined and Polished stone tools and
4. Pottery manufacture 

The discovery of the tools and implements of the neolithic age was made by Le Mesurier in Uttar Pradesh in 1860. Later on, Frasher discovered such objects in Bellary in South India. The people of this age used tools and implements of polished stone.

Neolithic People : The civilisation and culture of the Neolithic age shows distinct traces of progress. The Neolithic men had a settled life. They practised agriculture and grew fruits and corn. Animals, such as the cow, dog, ox, goat etc. were domesticated. The art of producing fire by the friction of bamboos or pieces of stones was known to them. Instead of eating the uncooked flesh of various animals, they now started roasting it. Besides this, bows and arrows were invented and were used for the purpose of hunting. They also learnt pottery, at first by hand and then with the potter's wheel. They painted and decorated their pots. They lived in caves, the walls of which were polished and painted with the scenes of hunting and dancing. The also learnt the art of spinning and weaving clothes. They used to bury their dead and construct tombs over them which were known as Dolmens, Menhirs etc.s

Neolithic Tools : The stone tools of the Neolithic age bear unmistakeable signs of polish either all over the tools or at the buttend and working-end, or only at the working end. They fashioned their tools out of fine-grained dark-green trap, though there are examples of the use of diorite, basalt, slate, chlorite, schist, indurated shale, gneiss, sand stone and quartzite.

Occupation : Neolithic settlers were cattle-herders and agriculturists. They produced ragi, wheat, barley, rice, masoor, moong, kulthi etc. Hand-made pottery is also found in the early  stage. Elephant, rhino, buffalo, ox, stag remains are also found in plenty. But there is no specification of these domesticated. The pottery were well made but were coarse in nature, not that much polished.

Red, Grey, Black and Red Ware, Black Burnished Ware and Mat-impressed Wars are associated with this culture.

Tools making was another important occupation which included a variety of picks, scrapers, eyed needles, bodkins and pierced batons.

Facts to Remember

Sir John Lubbock coined the term Neolithic in his book Prehistoric Teme , first published in 1865. The term refers to an age in which stone implements were more skillfully made and more varied in form. It was V. Gardon Childe who defined the Neolothic-Chalcolithic culture as a self sufficient food economy Miles Burkit put forward the following four characteristics a culture should fulfil to be called a Neolithic Culture Agriculture practice Domestication of animal polished and grined stone tools pottery manufacture

 

Chalcolithic Age 

Towards the end of the Neolithic period began the use of metals. Firt metal to be used was copper and the culture of that time is called Chalcolithic cultre. The earliest settlements belonging to this phase are extended from the Chhotanagpur plateau to the copper Gangetic basin. Some sites are found at Brahmagiri near Mysore and Navada Toli on the Narmada.

The transition from use of stone to the use of metals is slow and long drawn. There is no doubt that there was an overlapping period when both stone and metals were used. This is proved by the close resemblance of metallic tools and implements with those made of stone. The Chalcolithic

i.e. copper bronze age or stone-copper age of India produced a splendid civilisation in the Indus Valley which spread in the neighbouring regions.

Occupation: Their economy was based on subsistence agricultre, stock-raising, hunting and fishing. Their tools consisted of a specialised blade and flake of silicious material like chalcedony and chert. Copper and bronze tools were present in a limited number. The culture shares the common characteristic of painted pottery.

Burial Practices: Another striking feature was the burial practice of the dead. The dead were buried in north-south position in Maharashtra but in east-west position in south India. In eastern India, only a fraction of population buried their dead.

Chalcolithic Settlement Pattern

Largest - Diamabad Town features at Diamabad and Inamagaon Town Planning - Inamgaon Fortification - Nagada, Inamgaon, Diamabad, Balathal Baked Brick Evidence - Gilund Stone Dwellings - Ahar Chiefly circular and rectangular houses have been found Microliths have been found from Ahar Flat, Rectangular copper axe have been found frm Jorwey and Chandoli Chief Crop Barley Evidence of Rice has been found from Inamgaon Fire Altars and Fire Worksip were prevalent Inner Funeral System North South direction of burials East West direction of burials were prevalent in South India

About Pottery and Types 

Pottery	Type
Ahar	Red Ware
Kayatha	Deep Red Ware
Malwa	Deep Brown & Black
Saalda	Pictographic (Red & Black)
Jorwe	Pictographic (Red & Black)

Prabhas	Pictographic (Red & Black)
Rangpur	Polished Red

 

Chalcolithic Settlement Pattern

Bhimbetka - Homo Sapiens' Cave 500 painted Rock Shelters Nevasa - Evidence of cotton Atranjikheda - Textile printing Hastinapur - Wild Sugarcane Inamgaon - Statue of mother goddness Mehargarh - Earliest evidence of agriculture Koldihva - Earliest evidence of rice Bagor and Adamgarh - Earliest evidences of Domestication of animal Chirand - Serpant cult Burzahom Gulfkral - Pit-dwelling

 

Quit India Movement Day 2023:

Quit India Movement Day 2023:

Every year Quit India Day is observed on August 8 to commemorate the occasion. This year marks the 81st anniversary of the event.

• The Quit India Movement, also known as the August Movement or Bharat Chodo Andolan, was a significant civil disobedience movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress on August 8, 1942 at Gowalia Tank Maidan also known as August Kranti Maidan in Bombay.
• On this day, August 8th, in 1942, Gandhi gave the famous “Do or Die” speech, urging the Indian people to act decisively and nonviolently against British rule.
• While factors leading to such a movement had been building up, matters came to a head with the failure of the Cripps
• The failure of the Cripps Mission made Gandhi realise that freedom would come only if Indians fought tooth and nail for it.
• The movement aimed to demand an end to British colonial rule in India and achieve full independence.
• The movement saw widespread protests, strikes and acts of civil disobedience across the country.
• People participated in marches, demonstrations, and various forms of nonviolent resistance.
• Women played a vital role in the Quit India Movement, displaying immense courage and leadership.

Raisina Dialogue : Global Level Think Tank

Foreign Secretary recently told a Parliament committee that the Raisina Dialogue is now among the most significant global level think tank events in the world.

• Raisina Dialogue is India’s premier conference on geopolitics and geoeconomics, committed to addressing the most challenging issues facing the global community.
• It is modeled on the lines of the Munich Security Conference and Singapore’s Shangri-La Dialogue.
• It is held annually since 2016 in New Delhi.
• The Dialogue is structured as a multi-stakeholder, cross-sectoral discussion involving heads of state, cabinet ministers, and local government officials, who are joined by thought leaders from the private sector, media, and academia.
• It is organized by the Observer Research Foundation (ORF) in partnership with the Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India.
• Observer Research Foundation (ORF) established in 1990, the ORF is an independent, nonpartisan think tank that conducts policy research on good governance, foreign policy, and sustainable economic development for India.
• ORF’s work spans a wide range of topics, including climate, energy, cyber issues and media, economic development, and national security.
• It provides non-partisan, independent, well-researched analyses and inputs to diverse decision-makers in governments, business communities, academia, and to civil society around the world.
• It seeks to lead and aid policy thinking towards building a strong and prosperous India in a fair and equitable world.

Maya Operating System:

The Defence Ministry recently decided to drop the Microsoft operating system and go for a local one named Maya operating system.

• Maya OS is a new Operation System (OS) based on an open-source platform.
• It has the interface and all functionality like Windows and users will not feel much difference as they transition to it.
• Maya was developed by government development agencies within six months.
• Aim is to prevent malware attacks and other cyberattacks which had seen a steep increase.
• Currently, Maya is being installed only in Defence Ministry systems and not on computers connected to the networks of the three Services.
• Operating System (OS)is a software program that acts as an intermediary between computer hardware and the computer user.
• It provides a user-friendly interface and manages the hardware and software resources of a computer system.
• In essence, an operating system enables a user to interact with a computer and run applications efficiently.
• An OS, after being initially loaded into the computer by a boot program, manages all of the other application programs in a computer.

North East Venture Fund:

The Union Minister for Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region informed Lok Sabha about the North East Venture Fund.

• North East Venture Fund is registered as a Category I Venture Capital Fund under Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) Alternative Investment Funds (AIF) Regulations, 2012.
• An independent committee (Investment Committee) comprising of experienced professionals from the field of venture funding, private equity, developmental banking etc takes the investment decision.
• As a regulatory requirement, periodic reporting on the operation/compliances of regulation is placed before the contributors of NEVF and other concerned bodies in a structured manner.
• In addition, fund operation is also monitored by Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) in the form of periodic audit.
• It was established as a close ended fund with a target corpus of Rs. 100 crore.
• It has already received its targeted corpus with contribution of Rs. 30 crore from North Eastern Development Finance Corporation Ltd. (NEDFi), Rs. 25 crore from Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI) and Rs. 45 crore from Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region (MDoNER).
• However, the contribution of MDoNER was given to NEDFi as interest free loan to be repayable in lump sum at the end of 15 years.

Direct Incentive Disbursement : Postal Life Insurance

Recognising the pivotal role of its sales force, the Postal Life Insurance (PLI) introduced the pilot program for “Direct Incentive Disbursement” in the Delhi and Uttarakhand Circles.

• Direct Incentive Disbursement Program will recognize the role of PLI’s sales force which is the driving force behind the department’s accomplishments.
• It will impact around two lakh sales force members across the nation, including Gramin Dak Sevaks, Direct Agents, Field Officers, and Departmental Employees.
• Sales force receives incentives directly in their Post Office Savings Bank accounts.
• Sales force can conveniently manage their funds, and immediate rewards drive optimal performance.
• Automated payouts reduce administrative costs, enabling a greater focus on delivering client service.

Postal Life Insurance:

• It is the oldest life insurer in this country which was introduced on 1st February 1884.
• It started as a welfare scheme for the benefit of postal employees and was later extended to the employees of the Telegraph Department in 1888.

ECOWAS:

Member countries of Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) will meet to discuss their next steps, after Niger’s military junta defied their deadline to reinstate the country’s ousted president.

• ECOWAS is the West African nation’s regional group which was established in 1975 through the Lagos Treaty.
• Aim is to have a single common currency and create a single, large trading bloc in areas of industry, transport, telecommunications, energy, financial issues, and social and cultural matters.
• Member countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Cote d’ Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Senegal and Togo. Around 400 million people live in this region.
• These countries have both cultural and geopolitical ties and shared common economic interest.
• Headquarters: Abuja, Nigeria.
• Beyond the goals of economic cooperation, ECOWAS has attempted to quell military conflicts in the region.
• ECOWAS also operated a regional peacekeeping operation known as ECOMOG, led by Nigeria in the 1990s and early 2000s.

State Of Elementary Education In Rural India 2023:

The Ministry of Education has released the State of Elementary Education in Rural India – 2023 report, highlighting the Prevalence of Smartphone Usage among students.

• The report was based on a survey conducted by the Development Intelligence Unit (DIU), a collaboration between NGO Transform Rural India and Sambodhi Research and Communications.
• The survey gathered responses from 6,229 parents of schoolchildren aged 6–16 in rural communities across 21 States.

Key Findings of the Survey:

• 49.3% have access to smartphones. 76.7% of parents indicated that their children primarily use smartphones for playing video games, indicating a preference for entertainment over educational activities.
• Additionally, 56.6% of students use smartphones to download and watch movies, while 47.3% use them to download and listen to music.
• In contrast, only 34% of students use smartphones for study-related downloads, and a mere 18% access online learning via tutorials.
• Smartphone access varies across different class levels.
• Students in higher classes (Class VIII and above) have greater access to smartphones (58.32%), while even younger students (Classes I–III) show considerable access (42.1%).
• This indicates that smartphone usage for entertainment is prevalent across age groups, potentially impacting their educational engagement.
• 78% of parents aspire for their children to attain graduation-level education or above, however, there is a gap in parental engagement.
• Only 40% of parents have daily conversations with their children about their school learning, while 32% engage in such conversations a few days a week.
• For girls, 36.8% of parents mentioned that the need to contribute to family earnings led to their daughters dropping out.
• Meanwhile, 31.6% attributed the dropout to their child’s lack of interest in studies, and 21.1% believed household responsibilities played a role.
• For boys, the primary reason for dropping out was a lack of interest in studies, cited by 71.8% of respondents, followed by 48.7% stating the need for boys to contribute to family earnings.
• 84% of parents reported regular attendance.
• Additionally, the availability of age-appropriate reading materials other than textbooks was reported by 40% of parents, highlighting the need for further resources to support children’s learning at home.

Rhesus Macaques : Recent Study

A recent study conducted by researchers from Imperial College London, titled “Genetics, Social Environment and Evolution of Male Same-Sex Behavior in Rhesus Macaques,” has challenged conventional beliefs about same-sex behaviour (SSB) in animals.

• The engagement of animals in SSB has been considered a ‘Darwinian paradox’: if reproduction is critical to evolution, then SSB – which is non-reproductive – should have ceased to exist.
• This recent study found that male SSB in rhesus macaques is very common and doesn’t harm evolution.

Key Findings from the Study:

• The study focuses on male same-sex mounting behaviour observed in rhesus macaques, a common monkey model, in Cayo Santiago, an island east of Puerto Rico.
• 72% of observed male rhesus macaques engaged in same-sex mounting.
• Only 46% participated in different-sex mounting.
• It challenges the notion that SSB contradicts principles of evolution due to its non-reproductive nature.
• The study considers external factors like social interactions and the environment.
• These non-genetic elements contribute to the expression of SSB behaviour in male rhesus macaques.
• SSB-engaging monkeys form coalitions against common enemies.
• Male SSB could serve as a form of emotional communication and regulation.
• The study disputes the assumption that SSB reduces reproductive opportunities, as sexually active males engage in both SSB and different-sex sexual behaviour (DSB).
• There is no direct correlation between SSB engagement and reduced offspring count in the macaque population.

31st World University Games:

The 31st World University Game was held in Chengdu, China, where India has won a total of 26 medals across 4 disciplines with highest medal count at the World University Games.

• Many of the athletes who won the Medals come from Khelo India Scheme and Target Olympic Podium Scheme (TOPS).
• It had to be held in 2021, the World University Games had to be rescheduled twice due to the Covid-19 pandemic.
• World University Game also known as “Universiade,” is an international multi-sport event specifically for university athletes.
• It is organized by the International University Sports Federation (FISU).
• FISU is the governing body that oversees and organizes the Universiade events.
• FISU is responsible for coordinating the host cities and ensuring that the games are conducted in accordance with the organization’s principles and regulations.
• The Universiade is held every two years and features a wide range of sports similar to the Olympic Games.
• It includes both summer and winter editions,
• With the summer Universiade typically featuring sports like athletics, swimming, basketball, soccer, and more,
• While the winter Universiade includes sports like skiing, ice hockey, figure skating, and others.

World Tribal Day 2023:

The International Day of the World’s Indigenous Peoples, also known as World Tribal Day, is observed annually on August 9, as per a resolution by the UN General Assembly in December 1994.

• This date commemorates the inaugural meeting of the UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights Working Group on Indigenous Populations in 1982, highlighting its significance in promoting and safeguarding the rights of indigenous populations worldwide.
• The theme of World Tribal Day in 2023 is “Indigenous Youth as Agents of Change for Self-determination.”
• The day is necessary since indigenous peoples are frequently among the most underprivileged racial and ethnic groupings in society.
• The UN estimates that although indigenous people make up less than 5% of the global population, they are responsible for 15% of the world’s poorest people.

Indian Air Force Received Israel’s Anti Guided Missiles:

The Indian Air Force has received Israel’s Spike Non-Line of Sight (NLOS) anti-tank guided missiles.

• The Spike NLOS will be integrated with the Russian-origin fleet of Mi-17V5 helicopters.
• Spike Non-Line of Sight (NLOS) developed by: Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd, Israel.
• Spike NLOS is a multi-purpose, electro-optical/infrared missile system.
• It is a fire-and-forget anti-tank and anti-personnel missile.
• Range: up to 32 kilometers
• It can be integrated with the ground, air, or maritime platforms.
• It has the capability to strike distant or geographically concealed targets without line-of-sight.
• In missile guidance, line of sight (LOS) is the line directly between the launcher/tacker and the target.
• The weapon’s seeker and wireless datalink provide operators with real-time video imagery and man-in-the-loop control throughout the missile’s flight.
• This provides operators with the opportunity to alter or abort the mission while en route to the target.
• The made-in-Israel Spike missile is capable of destroying enemy targets hidden behind mountains from long ranges.

Project Devika : North India’s First River Rejuvenation

It was announced that North India’s first River Rejuvenation Project Devika is nearing its completion.

• It was Built at a cost of over Rs 190 crore on the lines of ‘Namami Ganga’, the Project was launched by Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi
• Project Devika launched in 2019.
• It was launched under the National River Conservation Plan (NRCP).
• Ministry: Ministry of Jal Shakti.
• Project Devika aims to rejuvenate the Devika River.
• Under the project, bathing “ghats” (places) on the banks of the Devika River will be developed.
• Further, the encroachments will be removed, and natural water bodies will be restored.
• The catchment areas will also be developed along with cremation grounds.
• The Liquid Waste Management Project involves creating a network of pipes and manholes connecting households under the Project. (Cleaning of River Ganga)
• A Solid Waste Management Project is additionally planned to further enhance the river’s restoration.
• The project also includes the construction of three sewage treatment plants, the development of two cremation ghats, protection fencing and landscaping, small hydropower plants, and three solar power plants.
• Devika River originates from the hilly Suddha Mahadev temple in the Udhampur district of Jammu and Kashmir and flows down towards western Punjab (now in Pakistan) where it merges with the Ravi River.
• The river holds religious significance as it is revered by Hindus, as the sister of the river Ganga.
• It is believed that Devika River is a manifestation of the Goddess Parwati.

INTRODUCTION, EXTENT AND POLITICAL HISTORY: THE SANGAM AGE

The Sangam Age

• From available evidence it can be said that there is a body of literature in Tamil which has had unbroken development over twenty centuries.
• The earliest known phase of this literature is usually designated the Sangam literature for the reason that the anthologies of odes, lyrics and idylls which form bulk of that literature, were composed at a time when the Pandyan kings of Madurai maintained in their court a body of eminent poets who in a sort of unofficial way functioned as a board of literary censors.
• Later poets and scholars like saint Navukharasar and the commentator on the Iraiyanar Ahapporul used the expression sangam to denote this association of scholars. 
  Sangam Period
• Though it is difficult to accept all the interesting but obviously legendary details about this Sangam given by later writer as authentic history, yet it would equally difficult to reject the fact of the existence of an institution like the Sangam.
• The preface to the Tolkappiyam speaks of the practice of learned treatise being critically examined by court poets. 
• A good part of the literature that was produced during the Sangam period has perished.
• Legendary and traditional accounts mention the loss of many texts on the occasion of ‘deluge’ which compelled the Pandyan kings to shift their capital first from Ten-Madurai to Kapatapuram and then from there to Madurai. 
• The currently extend body of sangam literature is but a fraction of vast literature.

Extent

• The Pandya country occupied the extreme  south and included the modern districts of Madurai, Ramnad and Tirunelveli. Its capital was Madurai (earlier Ten-Madurai and then Kapatapuram served as their capitals). Korkai was its main seaport. Saliyur was another seaport.
• The Chola country comprised the lower Kaveri Valley. It roughly corresponded to modern Tanjore and Tiruchirapalli districts; its inland capital was Uraiyur later Puhar.
• The Chera or Kerala kingdom was the western coastal strip above the northern limit of the Pandyan kingdom. Tondi and Muziris were the best known port. Vanji or Karur was its capital.

Political History

• The three major kingdoms Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas ruled over Tamiliham. (The extreme south of India from the Tirupati hill to Cape Comorin (Kanya Kumari) bounded by the sea on the east and west, was known as Tamiliham. 
• The second Rock Edict of Ashoka mentions the names of the Cholas, Pandyas, Satiyaputra and Keralaputra. These countries lay outside the empire of Ashoka. 
• The Chera kingdom was the oldest of  the three.
• The king was the very centre and embodiment of administration. 
• The most common form of government in the Sangam age was hereditary monarchy. 
• The king was called Ko, Mannam, Vendan, Korravan, etc. 
• The king’s power was restricted by five councils. These five consisted of:

1. Amaichchar (ministers)
2. Purohitar (priests)
3. Senapatiyar (army chiefs)
4. Dutar (ambassadors)
5. Orrar (spies).

• The ministers advised the kings on matters on which they were consulted.
• The village was the smallest unit of administration. The small village assembly met there to transact local business. 
• The entire kingdom was called Mandalam. 
• Below the Mandalam a major division was Nadu. 
• The Ur was a town which was sometimes  described as a big village (Perur), a small village (Sirur) or an old village (Mudur). 
• Pattinam was the name for a coastal town and Puhar was the harbour area. 
• Salai was the trunk road and Teru the street in a town. 
• Uraiyar was the Chola inland capital; Korkai was the Pandyan coastal capital and Madurai was the Pandyan inland capital. Musiri was the Chera port.

The Cheras

• Udiyanjeral was the first important Chera king. The title vanavaramban and perunjoran udiyan are applied to him by the poet Mudinagarayar in Puram.  

Know the Important Facts

• The extreme south of India from the Tirupati hill (Vengadam) to Cape Camorin (Kanya Kumari), bounded by the sea on the east and west, was known as Tamilagan or Tamilham.
• The second and thirteenth Rock Edicts of Ashoka mention the southern kingdoms and Sri Lanka.
• The list in the second Edict, which comprises by name the Cholas, Pandyas, Satiyaputra and Keralaputra, besides Tambraparni.
• Tamil is the oldest among the spoken literary languages of South India.
• Virtually no Roman coins of the third century have been found in India.
• The first and second centuries A.D. formed the period when Roman trade with India was brisk.
• Muziri and Tondi on the west coast of South India, Korkai and Kaveripattinam on the east were among the chief ports of the Tamil land.
• There is a reference in Silappadikaram to king Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka being present on the occasion of the installation of a temple to Kannagi, by the Chera king Senguttuvan.
• Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka is known to have ruled in the second half of the second century A.D., and so Senguttuvan is assigned to that century. 
• Senguttuvan, also known as the Red Chera was the son of Nedenjeral. He was the greatest of the Cheras and built a temple to Kannaji, the heroine of Silappadikaram.
• Senguthuvan was the contemporary of the poet Pannar.
• According to Silappadikaram Senguthuvan was the founder of the Pattini cult related to the worship of the goddess of chastity.
• The cheras were known by many equivalent titles Vannar, Villavar, Khudavar, Kuttuvar, Malaiyar and Poraiyar etc.

The Cholas

• Karikala was the greatest king of the Cholas. He was a contemporary of the Chera King Perunjeral Adan. He founded the new capital at Puhar.
• According to tradition recorded in Manimekalai, a good part of the port town of Puhar was engulfed by the sea during the reign of Chola King Killivalavan.
• The Cholas were known as Sennis, Sembiyas, Valavan and Killi. 

The Pandyas

• Sangam literature refers primarily to Pandyan kingdom but also contains informations about Cholas and Cheras.
• Pandyas were the first south Indian kindgom to be mentioned by Megasthenes and it was the first literary evidence of south Indian kingdoms.
• Nedunjeliyan was the most important king of the Pandyas mentioned in Silappadikaram.
• The earliest known Pandyan ruler was Palyagasalai Mudukudumi.
• According to Silappadikaram, Nedunjelliyan, in a fit of passion, ordered, without judicial enquiry, the execution of Kovalan, the hero of Silappakigaram. Kovalan was accused of theft but later Kovalan’s wife Kannagi proved her husband’s innocence. The king was struck with remorse and died of shock on the throne.
• The Pandyas were known as Manivar, Kavuriyar, Panchavar, Seliyar, Marar, Valudi and Tennar etc.

LITERATURE: THE SANGAM AGE

The Sangam Literature

The Ancient Tamil Siddhar Agastyar is traditionally believed to have chaired the first Tamil Sangam in Madurai.

The Sangam  Literature

• The period roughly between the 3rd century B.C. and 3rd century A.D. in South India (the area lying to the south of river Krishna and Tungabhadra) is known as Sangam Period.
• It has been named after the Sangam academies held during that period that flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai.
• At the sangams eminent scholars assembled and functioned as the board of censors and the choicest literature was rendered in the nature of anthologies.
• These literary works were the earliest specimens of Dravidian literature.
• According to the Tamil legends, there were three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) held in the ancient South India popularly called Muchchangam.
  1. The First Sangam, is believed to be held at Madurai, attended by gods and legendary sages.
  2. The Second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, only Tolkappiyam survives from this.
  3. The Third Sangam was also held at Madurai. A few of these Tamil literary works have survived and are a useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period
  Try yourself:The First Sangam, ​is believed to be held at _____

Earliest Tamil Works

• The Agattiyam was written by saint Agattiyar, is now extent in small shreds of sutras here and there, quoted by medieval commentators. 
• The Tolkappiyam was written by Tolkappiyar, supposed to be a disciple of Agastya and a contemporary of eleven other scholars who were all disciple of the same Rishi. 
• It is a work on Tamil grammar, literary tradition and sociology. 
• Purapporul Venba Malai, a medieval work on the grammar of the Puram literature, says that the twelve scholars jointly produced Pannirupadalam,  a grammatical work on Puram literature. 
• The Kakkaipadiniyam, an extinct work on prosody, is also ascribed by tradition to that period. 
• Traditionally, Tolkappiyam is supposed to lay down the grammatical rules which governed the literary compositions of the Sangam age. 
• The sutras of the Tolkappiyam are elaborate and extensive in range. 
• Orthography, construction, prosody, figures of speech, social practices, literary conventions, human psychology in so far as it relates to epic and dramatic literature, the grammar of the Aham (love) and Puram (war) and the allied conventions are set forth in detail in this work. 
• It is schematic and divided into three sections, each consisting of nine sub-chapters.
  Try yourself:
  The Tolkappiyam was written by ______

Know The Important Facts

• The word ‘Sangam’ for the early Tamil literature was mentioned for the first time by the Shaiva Saint Tirunavukkarasu Naynar who belonged to the early seventh century.
• The titles of the Cheras were: Vanavar, Villavar, Kudavar, Kuttuvar, Poraiyar, Malaiyar etc.
• The titles of the Cholas: Sennis, Sembiyas, Valavan and Killi.
• The titles of the Pandyas: Minavar, Kavuriyar, Panchavar, Tennar, Seliyar, Marar, Valudi etc.
• The Chera king Udiyanjeral was called Vanavaramban and Perujoran Udiyan by the poet Mudinagarayar in Puram.
• According to Silappad-karam, Pirakotitiya Senaguttuvan was the founder of the famous Pattini cult.
• According to a tradition recorded in Manimekalai, a good part of the port town of Puhar was engulfed by the sea in terrific tidal waves, during the reign of the later Chola king Killivalavan.
• According to Silappadi-karam, Nedunjelian, in a fit of passion, ordered without judicial enquiry the execution of Kovalan, the hero of Silappadikaram.
• The king was called Ko, Mannam, Vendan, Korravan or Iraivan.
• Soldiers were rewarded by the grant of maraya (military honour or fief) and the enadi title for particular act of heroism.
• Kadimaram or a Kavalmaram is a tutelary tree. It was believed that the tree had the power to protect the town.
• Viralis were the professional dancing girls.
• Yal and Padalai were the musical instruments.
• Tunaigai and alliyam were the dance forms.
• Pulaiyars were the craftmen who handled their needles with deftness.
• Panik-Kalari was an important industrial ‘factory’ where weapons
   of war were forged and repaired.

Try yourself:The titles of the Cholas were _______

• a. Sennis
  
• b. Sembiyas
  
• c. Valavan
  
• d. Killi
• e. all the above

POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS DURING VEDIC PERIOD

Political Condition
 Rig Vedic Period

• The earliest Aryan kingdoms were founded by four kings, Iksaku, Pramsu, Sudyunma and Saryata, all stated to be the sons of Manu Vaivasvata.
• The word rajan or raja in the Rigveda denoted a tribal chief and not a monarchical king.
• Kingship was generally hereditary but elected monarchies were not unknown.
• The chiefs received from the people voluntary offerings called bali.
• The king did not maintain any regular or standing army. But during the period of war different tribal groups called vrata, gana, grama, sardha formed a militia.
• In the Atharvaveda both the Sabha and Samiti are noted as two daughters of Prajapati.
• Sabha is mentioned in the Rig Veda and Atharva Veda as a hall of gambling.
• The term ‘Vidatha’ is found in the Rig Veda and also in the Athavaveda but its meaning is not clear.
• The term 'Parisad' literally means ‘sitting round’ is available in the earlier Vedic literature.
• The ‘jana’ was the highest political or social unit among the Vedic Aryans. ‘Jana’ was used in the Rigveda and in later literature in a collected sense i.e., to denote a people or a tribe.
  Try yourself:What is the meaning of term ‘Parishad’ found in ancient Vedic texts?

  • a.Student
  • b.Sitting around
  • c.The highest political or social unit of people
  • d.Hall of Gambling

Later Vedic Period

Later Vedic Period

• There was a greater demand for military leadership.
• Laid the foundation for the state powers and kingship.
• On the evidence of Nirukta, it is known that these were elected kings even in the later Vedic age.
• It is stated in the Gautama Dharmasastra that the king was the Lord of all, but not of Brahmanas.
• The Bharatas of the Rigveda now had lost its political strength and their place was taken by the Kurus and Panchalas
• Divine theory of kingship was widely accepted by the subjects.
• The king performed sacrifices like the vajapeya, the rajasuya, and the ashwamedha, to symbolise the degree of success achieved in realising their ambitions.
• Raja was used for an ordinary ruler, and adhiraja, samrat, virat, ekarat and sarvabhauma denoted various gradations of suzerains.
• Considerable decrease in the importance and function of the popular assemblies. i.e., sabha, samiti, etc.,
• The Samiti, which gradually began to disappear from the time of the Samhitas, completely faded out in the later Vedic age.
• Parisad evolved itself into a selected body of scholars dominated by priests.
  Try yourself:In which text it is stated that - ‘King is lord of all, but not of Brahmanas’?

  • a.Manu Sastra
  • b.Gautama Dharmasastra
  • c.Meemansa Sastra
  • d.Nyaya Sastra

Few More Information

• Aitareya Brahmana, one of the later Vedic texts, tells us how the gods and demons decided to have a raja (king) to lead them against their enemies. The gods appointed Soma (Indra) as their king. Thus the kingship came into existence in India as a military necessity.In the Atharva Veda the king Parikshit was described as a god among men.
• The Satapatha Brahmana describes the king as the invisible symbol of god Prajapati himself.
• In the Tandya Brahmana a sacrifice is mentioned whereby the officiating Brahmana would help the subjects to destroy the king.

The term ‘Vidatha’ is found in the Rig Veda and also in the Atharvaveda.Aryans in Vedic period

Try yourself:In which Veda, King Parikshit was described as a God among men?

• a.Rig Veda
• b.Yajur Veda
• c.Sama Veda
• d.Atharva Veda 

• On the evidence of Nirukta, it is known that there were elected kings even in the later Vedic period.
• It is stated in the Gautama Dharmasutra that the king was the lord of all, but not of the Brahmanas.
• Suta and Gramani were also known as Raja Kartri or kingmaker.
• According to the Prasna Upanishad, one of the lowest rung of the ladder stood the village officials (adhikari) appointed by the king.
• ‘Gana’ the technical word for the republic, is found at forty-six places in the Rig Veda.
• There is at least one reference in the Rig Veda in which the leader of the gana is given the title of ‘Rajan’.
• The term Ibhas and Ibbyas apply to the class of king’s retainers.
• The terms upastis and stis apply to the group of king’s clients or dependents.

Social Condition
 Rig  Vedic Period

• There is nowhere in the Rig-veda any indication of the castes.
• The foundation of the Hindu social system based on the classes has to be traced from the Purusasukta of the Rigveda which divides society into four major classes. i.e. brahmana, rajanya, vaisya and sudra.
  "I am a poet, my father is a doctor, and my mother is a grinder of corn" —RigVeda.
• Food & Dress
• Besides wheat and barley, milk was the chief article of food.
• Meat of sheep and goats were rarely eaten by the people.
• The cow was deemed ‘aghnya’ (not to be slaughtered) because of her usefulness.
• Soma and Sura were the two intoxicating drinks.
• They generally used garments consisted of three parts, namely nivi or undergarment, vasa or a garment, and an adhivasa or an overgerment.

Eighteen Puranas

•  Vishnu, Bhagavata, Naradiya, Garuda, Padma, and Varaha (all are Sauvika Puranas)
•  Brahmanda, Brahmavaivanta, Markandya, Bhavishya and Vamana (all are Rajas Puranas)
•  Siva, Linga, Skanda, Agni, Matsya and Kurma (all are Tamasa Puranas)
  Try yourself:Which of the following Puranas is a part of Tamasa Puranas?

  • a.Vishnu Purana
    
  • b.Agni Purana
    
  • c.Padma Purana
    
  • d.Markandya Purana

Position of Women

The journey of Indian Women

• In the Vedic period, women enjoyed a very respectable position in the society.
• The women took part in Vedic discussions, and mixed with men in popular festives.
• Non-Aryan women appear to have joined the army in large numbers.
• From the use of the words ‘Parividana’ and ‘Parivitta’ we may surmise that the brothers and sisters were married according to seniority.
• Widows were allowed to remarry, probably in such cases where the dead had left no son.
• The customs of child marriage, sati and slavery were unknown.
  Later Vedic Period
• The later Vedic Society was divided into four varnas called the brahmanas, rajanya or kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras
• All the three higher varnas were entitled to upanayana.
• The Nishadas were non-Aryan lived in their villages.

Rig vedic society

• The Vratyas were the members of the Aryan race but led nomadic life.
• Varna ashrama dharma was not well established in Vedic times. In the post Vedic texts we hear of four stages of life.
• The institution of gotra appeared in the later Vedic times.
• Gotra, Vis, and Jana may be corresponding to the viz., Zantu and Dagun of the Iranian world.
• In the Taittriya Aranyaka and the Aitareya Upanishads, ladies are directed to leave the hall of learning where some principles of gynaecology were explained, which are indelicate for the female ear.
• Women were excluded from inheriting the property.
• The Vedic chaturvarna (four castes) concept of social order came from the basic human tendencies and practices which were categorised under four major divisions for constitution of effective social bodies and proper distribution of social work among them.
• The said four categories are based on the following tendency.
  Try yourself:Which of the following statements are incorrect about a woman in vedic period?

  • a.Women were included in inheriting the property.
  • b.Widows were allowed to remarry, probably in such cases where the dead had left no son.
  • c.Sati & Slavery were not part of Vedic civilization
    
  • d.Non-Aryan women appear to have joined the army in large numbers.
  
  (a) Brahmanic tendency: thinking and practices of knowledge and understanding;
  (b) Kshatriya tendency: aggression, establishment of power structure and order;
  (c) Vaishya tendency: trade, production, technological pursuits and wealth; and
  (d) Shudra tendency: service orientation, willingness to continue and fulfil the necessary functions.
• Purusasukta states that Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras originated respectively from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the creator.
• In the Aitareya Brahmana the Vaisya is described as a cultivator or merchant who lived on his source of profit in trade.
• In the Aitareya Brahmana it has been said that the Shudra was not so much fortunate. He was servant of another, who could be expelled or punished at will.
• Varnashrama: The life of an individual Aryan was divided into four stages:
  (a) Brahmacharya (b) Grirhasta
   (c) Vanaprastha   (d) Sanyasa

Coins used for tradingThe series of these four stages of an ideal span of life cover the study, the family life, the asceticism and the renunciation in a single life-time. The entire life passed through karma to take a perfect shape.

• The Family
• The ancient Hindu family included parents, children, grandchildren, uncles and their decendents, the adopted children, a number of servants and clients.
• The Child
• The jatakarma took place immediately after the birth by cutting the umbilical cord, by whispering sacred mantras and by placing a mixture of honey and ghee into his mouth.
• When the child became six months, the annaprasana ceremony (first feeding of solid food) was held.
• At the age of three, the kshura karma (tonsure) took place in case of the male child where the scalp of the child head being shaved.
• At the age of five, the child is taught the alphabets by a Brahmana priest or teacher.
• With his upanayana (sacred thread ceremony) at the age of nine, the boy attained the status of dvija or Brahmacharin. The Yajnopavita or Yajna Sutra (sacred thread) consisted of nine twisted strands made of cotton.
• The ceremony included the whispering of the sacred gayatri mantra into the ears of the dwija. The gayatri  mantra runs thus:

“Let us meditate on the beautiful splendour of the god savitri (sun) that he may purify our souls.”
 

Education
The education of the boy or girl started with upanayana or the ceremonial initiation in Vedic studies. It was similar to the Indo-Iranian ceremony of navjot.
 The first lessons of the Brahmana student was the performance of trisandhya (devotion for three times a day).Ceremony was performed after the completion of 12 years of educationThe main subject of study was actually the Vedas. The other fields of study:
 (a) Vedangas (commentaries on the Vedas)
 (b) Kalpa (injunction)
 (c) Shiksha (education)
 (d) Chhandas (metrical composition)
 (e) Nirukta (etymology)
 (f) Jyotisa (astrology)
 (g) Vyakarana (grammar)
 (h) Jyotirvidya (astronomy)
 (i) Aastrovidya (archery)
 (j) Ganitshasra (mathematics)
 (k) Sahitya (literature) 

Try yourself:Upanayana is a sacred thread ceremony conducted for a male child. This ceremony is usually done for the child at the age of?

• a.7
• b.8
• c.9
• d.10

Costumes and Jewellery

• The lower paridhana or vasana was usually a piece of cloth fastened round the waist with a string. It is known as mekhala.
• The upper garment was called uttariya or chadar, a thin cotton shawl dropped over the shoulders. Later on dhoti and sari became popular.
• Vadhuya was a special garment worn by the bride at the marriage ceremony.
• Kuriya was a kind of head-ornament worn by females, specially brides.
• Nyochani was another type of bride’s ornament.
• Khadi was a kind of ring, worn as an armlet or an anklet.
• Mani was a kind of jewel worn round the neck.
• Rukma was an ornament worn on the breast.

LITERATURE: THE VEDIC PERIOD

Literature

• Veda means knowledge, comes from the root vid (to know). They are given the titles of Apaurusheja (not made by man) and Nitya (eternal).
  Literature - Vedic Period
• The Veda consists of four different classes of literary composition, namely Mantras, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upnishads.
• Mantras: (saying, song, formula) consists of the oldest division of Vedic literature and is distributed in four samhitas (or collection); Rig Veda Samhita, Sam Veda Samhita Yajur Veda, Samhita and Athrva Veda Samhita. The first three are known  as Trayi (three fold knowledge).
• Samhita of Rig Veda is a collection of lyrics in praise of different gods. These were recited by the priest styled Hotri. It contains 1028 hymns, divided into 10 mandalas and some times into 8 astakas. But the former division is more popular. II-VII mandalas are the earliest and are also called family books. They are attributed to Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vasudev, Attri, Bhardwaj and Vashistha. Mandala VIII is attributed to Kanva and Angiras. Mandala IX is attributed to Soma.
• It gives us an insight into the political, social, economic and religious life of the people of Rig Vedic India.
• Samhita of Sam Veda - (books of chants) - All of its verses except 75 being taken directly from Rig-veda. These verses are given tune for the purpose of singing. Its songs were meant to be sung at some sacrifice by a special class of priests called Udgatri. It shows that Aryans loved music and were not marely puritans.
• Samhita of Yajur Veda (book of sacrificial prayers) - It deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices. It contains rituals as well as hymns. Recited by Advaryu.
• It can be divided into two parts:
• (a) Shyama Yajur Veda (Black Yajur Veda) - It is older and contains commentary in prose in addition to the text.
• (b) Sukla Yajur Veda (White Yajur Veda). It contains instructions only.
• Samhita of Athrva Veda (book of magical formula) also known as non-Aryan work some of its hymns are as old as the earliest hymns of Rig-veda. From the historical and scientific point of view resembles the Rig Veda, however its spirit is different. It is divided into 20 books.

 

Upanishads

It is a collection of songs, spells and incantations for the cure of disease, the restoration of harmony and the exorcism of evil spirit etc.

• The Aitareya and Kaushitaki Upanishads belong to Rig Veda.
• Chandogya and Kena Upanishad belong to Sama Veda 
• Taittiriya, Katha and Svetasvata belong to the Krishna Yajur Veda.
• Brihadaanyaka and Isa belong to the skla Yajur Veda
• Prasna, Mundaka and Mundukya belong to the Atharva Veda.

(2) Brahmanas—They marked the transition from the Vedic to later Brahmanical social order.

• They explain meaning of sacrifices and also the methods of performing them.
• They are commentries on various hymns of the Vedas to which they are appended.
• Each Brahmana is connected with one of the Samhitas.
• The three Brahmanas contain a lot of information about the non-Aryans and also tell us the methods by which the non-Aryans were to be admitted into the Aryan fold.
• To Rig Veda - Aitareya Brahmana and Kaushtaki Brahmana.
• To Sama Veda - Tandya-maha Brahmana, Sadvinsa Brahmana, Jaiminiya Brahmana.
• To Yajur Veda - Satapatha Brahmana; most exhaustive and most impotant of all the Brahmanas; points out the progress of culture from Panchala to Videha.
• To Atharva Veda - Gopatha Brahmana
• The difference between the Brahmanas connected with the various Vedas lies in the fact that the Brahmanas of the respective Vedas     deals with the work of different priests.
• As regards their fundamentals all the Brahmanas agree with one another to a very great extent.
• Aranyakas  (forest book) -These are the books of instructions to be given in the forest meant for wood dwelling hermits.
• They are found as appendices to the Brahmanas.
• It marks the transition from ritualistic to philosophical thought.
• Upanishads  (secret or esoteric doctrine) - Its name is derived from UPANISAD i.e “to sit near some one”. - There are 108 Upnishads altogether. - They contain deep speculations of a philosophical character which revolve around the two concepts of Brahma and Atma.

Comparison between Dravidian and Aryan Culture

• The Dravidians did not initiate and practise a  social theory like Aryan theory of varnashrama—Brahmanas, Kshtriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
• The caste-system, the very framework of the Aryan society, was conspicuous by its absence in the Dravidian society.
• The Dravidian laws of matrimonial alliances differed fundamentally from those of the Aryans. The Dravidians could marry within the fold of their blood relations, while the Aryans were denied this privilege.
• The social system of Dravidians, being matriarchal, was quite in contradiction to the patriarchal system of the Aryans.
• Their mode of life, customs, manners, religion and languages differed from those of the Aryans.

Differences between the Indus Valley Civilization and the Vedic Culture 

• Harappan civilization was superior to that of the Vedic culture.
• Indus Valley Civilization was an urban civilization whereas the Aryan culture was pastoral.
• The Indus valley people made use of only copper and bronze and iron was not known to them.
• There was brisk trade (inland and foreign) during the Harappan period.
• Humped-bull was probably a sacred animal to the Indus valley people whereas cow occupied a sacred place among the Aryans.
• The Indus valley people worshipped mother gooddesses.
• The Indus valley society was theocratic in nature. But the Aryan society was secular.
• The Indus valley people, although they are not artistic, made considerable progress in the field of art. Whereas the Aryans though possessed an artistic temperament failed to leave any signs of such craftsmanship.
• The Harappan people buried their dead bodies while the Aryans burnt them.
• The Indus people practised the cult of Sakti and Pasupati and worship of animal, tree, stone, phallus and yoni. 
• Aryan religion is mainly concerned with sky.
• The Indus people traded with foreign countries but did not adopt their positive things. They believed in isolation The plasticity of the Aryan mind is shown in the quick adoptation of agriculture and settled life as well as the use of language which in the Rig Veda rises to musical levels. This capacity of change and adapt has given continuity to Indian civilization.

MISCELLANEOUS: THE VEDIC CULTURE

Important Rituals

Rajasuya: The king’s influence was strengthened by rituals. He performed this sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power on him.
Asvamedha: A king performed the Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over an area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted.

Asvamedha ritual

Vajapeya: A king performed the Vajapeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen.

Chief Priests
The four chief priests who were engaged in performing the Shrauta sacrifiices were called Hotri, the invoker, Adhvaryu, the executor of the sacrifice, Udgatri, the singer, and Brahman, the high priest.

• Hotri: They recited Rig Samhita.
  
• Udgatri: They chanted the songs of Sama Samhita at the Soma sacrifice.
  
• Adhvaryu: Formulae of Yajur Samhita were to be uttered by the Adhvaryu priests who performed the manual work involved in a sacrifice.

Types of Marriage
(i) Brahma: Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same class.
(ii) Daiva: In this type of marriage, the father gives a daughter to a sacrificial priest as part of his fee.
(iii) Arsa: In this type of marriage, a token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given in place of the dowry.
(iv) Prajapatya: The father gives the girl without dowry and without demanding the bride-price.
(v) Gandharva: Marriage by the consent of the two parties, which might be solemnized merely by plighting troth.
(vi) Asrua: Asura marriage, in which the bride was bought from her father, was looked upon with disfavour by all the sacred texts, though the Arishashastra allows it without criticism.
(vii) Rakshasa: Rakshasamarriage, or marriage by capture, was practised especially by warriors.
(viii) Paishacha: It was the seduction of girl while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk  Of these eight forms the first four were generally approved and were permissible to brahmans. The other forms were looked on with varying degrees of disfavours by the pious. Gandharva marriage, which often might amount to no more than a liaison, was surprisingly respected. A special form of the gandharva marriage was the Swaymvar or “self-choice”.

Philosophical Systems
A large number of school of thought was prevalent in ancient times, but we know nine of them as the most important and influential. 

They are the Charvaka, Jaina, Buddha, Vaisheshika, Nyaya, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimansa and Vedanta. They fall into two groups, Astika and Nastika, the former believing in the authority of the Vedas and the latter discarding it. The first three systems are Nastika and all others are Astika. Jaina and Buddha schools of philosophy will be dealt with separately.

Charvaka System: The Charvaka system, also called Lokayata Darshna (the philosophy of the masses) propounds gross materialism.
 Among the orthodox systems of philosophy (Astika) there is some similarity and affinity between Nyaya and Vaisheshika, between Sankhya and Yoga, and between Mimansa and Vedanta. In the first two systems there is an affinity of philosophical doctrines, in the last two affinity is limited to the foundations and procedures, both systems having Vedic texts (one earliers and the other later) as their source, and the method of interpretation of the texts as the process of thinking. The Mimansakas recognize the Vedas as the final authority in determining the duties of man, and the Vedantists in gaining true knowledge about man and the universe. One is concerned with Karma-Kanda and the other with the Jnana-kanda of the Vedas, that is, the Samhitas and the Brahmanas, and the Upanishads respectively. This “Six systems of Hindu Philosophy” is also know as Shad-darshana.
(i) Vaisheshika (Particular Characteristics) : Propounded by Uluka Kanada. It is a realistic, analytic, and objective philosophy of the world.
(ii) Nyaya (Analysis): Propounded by Akshapad Gautama. It accepts all the categories recognized by the Vaisheshika system and adds one Abhava (negation).
(iii) Sankhya (Enumeration): Its legendary founder was Kapila. It is perhaps the oldest of the six systems, being mentioned in the Bhagavad Gita and occurring in a primitive form in the Upanishada. It is dualistic in its ontology. It believes in two ultimate realities Prakriti and Purusha.
(iv) Yoga (Application): Propounded by Patanjali. It is more or less applied Sankhya. It was based on the control of the body physically and implied that a perfect control over the body and the senses led to knowledge of the ultimate reality.
(v) Mimmnsa or Purva Mimamsa (Inquiry): Propounded by Jaimini. It is a philosophy of interpretation, application and use of texts of the Samhita and Brahamana portions of the Vedas.
(vi) Vedanta (End of the Vedas): It is also called Uttara Mimansa. The basic text of the system is the Brahma Sutras of Badarayana. Vedanta was decisive in refuting the theories of non-brahmanical schools.